SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISON

Ed (1.5 Years)
DISCLAIMER

The materials for the content development of this course were initially collected and prepared from several sources. A substantial amount of effort has been made to review and edit the materials and convert them into this courseware. References and acknowledgements are given as required. Care has been taken to avoid errors, but errors are possible. Please let us know of errors or failed links you discover.

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Edition…………………………………… First Printing………………………………….. 2017

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Publisher:……………………………….. Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

FACULTY OF EDUCATION ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

Newly appointed school administrators are often confused when faced with the prospect of having to assume a leadership role in a complex organization like a school or school system. Where does one start? An effective method would be to systematically examine the vital components that make up an organization. A system of organizational diagnosis and prescription will lead to a comprehensive and integrated analysis of the organization’s strengths and weaknesses and point the way toward possible improvement. This course “School Administration and Supervision” suggests such a sequential and systematic approach. Utilizing it effectively can produce dramatic results in school management and administration.

This is a book about school administration and supervision. School administration is primarily about leadership. The conventional wisdom is that leaders are born, not made but more importantly, scholarly research indicates that skills can be learned. Granted, some leaders will be superior to others because of genetics, but the basic leadership skills are learned and can be cultivated and enhanced. In nine units of this book, first four units speak about administration, while unit number five, six, seven and eight deal with supervision. Unit number nine deals with the use of technology in administration and supervision.

The effective building blocks of quality school administration/leadership are the concepts of educational administration, administrative structure, functions and tasks of school administrator and the concept of supervision. Mastering the theory and practice in these areas of study will produce high-quality leadership ability and, in turn, produce successful school administrators; application of this knowledge will result in highly successful school administration and supervision.

There is an assumption that many educational practitioners make regarding effective administration is that “nice guys (and gals) finish last.” To be a successful administrator, the belief goes, one needs to be firm, direct, even autocratic. Once again, scholarly research, as well as my own experience, indicates that no one singular leadership style is consistently effective in all situations and at all times. Empirical and experiential studies indicate that effective leaders vary their styles depending on the situation.

It has been experience that graduate students in educational administration often complain that they are taught only theory and are left to their own devices to apply it. This approach is not the worst instructional method in that educators should be trained to be reflective practitioners who constantly strive to connect theory to practice. However, a truly effective instructional technique is to help students along in making those connections. Thus, at the end of each unit, there are activities that are specifically aimed at placing theory into practice.

Another assumption that is generally held by administrators is that if dramatic changes are not made during the first year of one’s tenure, the so-called honeymoon period, changes may never be made. Once again, I challenge this assumption. I believe that change is far more effective when it is made in a culture of trust and participation.

We can say that there are some principles of effective leadership/ administration. Effective leaders/administrators:
- must be keenly aware of the organizational structure and culture of the school
- must be able to engender a sense of trust in the faculty and staff
- need to continuously improve the school program and, therefore, must be able to be agents for change
- need to be able to adapt their leadership style to the situation
- need to be well organized and creative and have a clearly articulated educational vision
In my view, which is supported by a prodigious amount of empirical research, if an administrator can master the knowledge and skills encompassed in these principles, and do it with heart, he or she will be highly successful.

Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Dean Faculty of Education

COURSE TEAM

Chairman:                                         Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Course Writers:                                 Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Dr. Syeda Samina Tahira Mr. Hamid Ali Nadeem

Course Reviewers:                            Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Dr. Nasrullah

Mr. Hamid Ali Nadeem

Editor:                                                Mr. Fazal Karim

Typesetter:                                         Mr. Muhammad Hameed

download in pdf 8616 book

https://www.mediafire.com/file/1yzrj6cg0lmelwy/8616.pdf/file

CONTENTS

Page No.

Preface ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii

Introduction of the Course ……………………………………………………………………………… xi

Objectives of the Course……………………………………………………………………………. xii

Course Outline ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ix

Unit–1: Introduction to Educational Administration ……………………………………….. 1

Unit–2:.. Educational Administrative Structures…………………………………………….. 13

Unit–3:.. School Administration and its functions………………………………………….. 29

Unit–4:.. Evaluative Role of Administration………………………………………………….. 39

Unit–5:.. Approaches of Supervision…………………………………………………………… 55

Unit–6:.. Functions of Supervision………………………………………………………………. 69

Unit–7:.. Synergic Supervision……………………………………………………………………. 97

Unit–8:.. Supervising School Improvement…………………………………………………. 107

Unit–9:.. Use of Technology in Administration and Supervision…………………….. 123

INTRODUCTION OF THE COURSE

Administration is a process of systematically arranging and co-ordinating the human and material resources available to any organization for the main purpose of achieving stipulated goals of that organization. When applied to the school system, the process is referred to as Educational Administration or School Administration. Administration is a term used to refer more to Government business. Administration occurs in every organization. The basic aim of administration is the need to get things done for defined objectives to be accomplished.

Educational Administration is the process of bringing men and materials together for effective and functional teaching and learning in the school. The focus of educational administration is the enhancement of teaching and learning. We can define educational administration as a process through which the school administrators arrange and co- ordinate the resources available to education, for the purpose of achieving the goals of the educational system.

School personnel remain one of the most significant resources in the school. Supervision of the school personnel is central to the attainment of the goals and objectives of the school.

The essence of supervision is therefore the monitoring of the performance of school staff, noting the merits and demerits and using befitting and amicable techniques to ameliorate the flaws while still improving on the merits thereby increasing the standard of schools and achieving educational goals. Thus, the concern of educational supervision is the improvement in teaching and teaching environment in order to promote effective teacher performance and learning in the school.

Supervision is thus a combination or integration of a number of processes, procedures and conditions that are consciously designed with the sole aim of advancing the work effectiveness of teachers and other personnel involved in the schooling process.

This course is designed with an intention to equip the prospective school leaders, administrators and managers with latest knowledge and practices. They will be introduced to the concept of administration and supervision in schools and they will come to know different types structures and styles to do their duties as a school administrator.

We should note that educational supervision focuses on changing the behavior of staff for an improved performance. In most cases, it is internally arranged by the school head and at times assisted by other agencies and stakeholders. Supervision pays more attention to personnel and instructional delivery more than the pupils in the school. In other words to enhance instruction, the role of the supervisors should be supportive, assisting, explanative, encouraging, guiding, advisory, improving and sharing rather than directing.

Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Course Coordinator

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

The course is designed for graduate students who will hold administrative role and work in the classroom (or other positions such as instructional supervisor) in their schools. Depending on their educational administration career aspirations it will develop and demonstrate understanding of content and skills that have been aligned with educational objectives.

As graduate student enrolled in this program one will be expected to:

Extend his/her knowledge of pedagogy and leadership.
Enlarge his/her understanding of schooling and develop an appreciation of the political, economic and social forces that influence the decisions of educational
Share in-depth analyses and discussions of theory for application to real-world
Manage a school successfully as a trained administrator through solving different problems and issues in the
Complete a comprehensive exam during his/her final semester demonstrating his/her competencies in educational leadership.

COURSE OUTLINES

FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

(B.Ed 1.5 Year Programme)

Course Code: 8616 Credit Hours 03

Course Developer/Coordinator: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Course Description:

This course is designed to introduce the learners with the educational administration and supervision. The administrative structures at national, regional and local level are complex and multidimensional. It is important for future teachers and head teachers to learn about the structures and functions of educational administration. One most important function among many others is supervision. Educational supervision specifically at district and school level plays a significant role in educational improvement. Therefore this course highlights the approaches and functions of supervision.

Learning Outcomes:

After completing this course the learners will be able to:

Work through the administrative structures effectively
Perform well in collaborating with various administrative heads
Design administrative and supervisory plans of action
Supervise the academic as well as administrative functions of educational

Course Outline:

Unit–1: Introduction to Educational Administration

Concept and Definitions of Administration
Levels of Administration
Educational Administration and its Scope
Administrative Roles and Responsibilities

Unit–2: Educational Administrative Structures

Central Bodies of Educational Administration
Provincial and Regional Structures of Educational Administration
Administrative Structures of Government /Public Schools
Administrative Structures of Private Schools

Unit–3: School Administration and its Functions

School Heads’ Responsibilities
Academic Heads’ Responsibilities
Administration Office and Its functions
Administrative Personal

Unit–4: Evaluative Role of Administration

Performance Appraisal
Financial Audits
Academic Audit
Administrative Evaluation

Unit–5: Approaches of Supervision

Authoritarian
Laissez Faire
Synergistic
Developmental approach

Unit–6: Functions of Supervision

Articulating and Achieving the Missions and Needs
Monitoring and Evaluation
Support and Advise
Liaison

Unit–7: Synergic Supervision

Dual Focus
Joint Effort
Two Way Communication
Focus on Competence
Growth Orientation

Unit–8: Supervising School Improvement

Supervising Physical Infrastructure
Supervising Administrative Practices
Supervising Resource Management
Supervising Teaching and Learning
Supervising School Environment

Unit–9: Use of Technology in Administration and Supervision

Developing Accounting and Auditing Systems
Ubiquitous Supervision
Creating Web Tools for Monitoring and Evaluation
Online Reporting and Dissemination of Information

Recommended Books:

Wiles, J. (Bondi, J. (2000). Supervision: A guide to Practice. NJ: Prentice Hall.

Oliva, Pl f. & Pawlas, G. E. (1997). Supervision for Today’s Schools. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Daresh, J. C. (2007). Leading and Supervising Instruction. California: Crown Press.

Creemers, B. P. M. and Kyriakides (2014). Improving Quality in Education. New York: Routledge.

Web Resources:

http://www.iiep.unesco.org/capacity-development/training/training-materials/school- supervision.html.

http://www.ascd.org/ascd/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198011_glickman.pdf http://www.staffingpractices.soe-vt.edu/supervision.htm http://www.nuepa.org/libdoc/e-library/articles/2002rstyagi.pdf

Unit–1

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Compiled by: Dr. Syeda Samia Tahira Revised by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3

1.1 Concept and Definitions of Administration ……………………………………………… 4

1.2 Levels of Administration……………………………………………………………………….. 5

1.3 Educational Administration and its Scope ……………………………………………….. 7

Administrative Roles and Responsibilities…………………………………………….. 10
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 11
Recommended Readings……………………………………………………………………. 11

INTRODUCTION

This unit describes the concept of administration, educational administration, its level, scope and function. The term educational administration is very comprehensive. It is concerned with the formulation, execution and appraisal of educational policies. This unit briefly and elaborately explains the concept of educational administration by throwing light on the scope, role, and function of the same.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the successful student will be able to:

To differentiate between administration and educational

To identify the key objectives, functions and role of Educational

To understand the level and task area of educational

To make precise decision using the knowledge of administration and

To evaluate the usefulness and soundness of educational administration for the study of a specific problem by selecting one of the options and justifying your

Concept and Definitions of Administration.

The world ‘administration’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘minister’ which means, ‘service rendered to others for their welfare’. Whereas in modern literature administration refers to the act or process of administering, especially the management of a government or large institution.

Educational administration is basically a part of administration and refers to a range of professionals from supervisors, program administrators, and principals to deans. department heads, and chief academic officers- as well as organizations form to administer school functions.

Educational administration illustrates the administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and educators in particular activities.

Basically, administration is a process of systematically arranging and coordinating the human and material resources available to any organization for the main purpose of achieving stipulated goals of that organization. When applied to the school system, the process is referred to as Educational Administration or School Administration. Administration is a term used to refer more to Government business. Administration occurs in every organization. The basic aim of administration is the need to get things done for defined objectives to be accomplished. Educational administration is the process of bringing men and materials together for effective and functional teaching and learning in the school. The focus of educational administration is the enhancement of teaching and learning. We can define educational administration as a process through which the school administrators arrange and co-ordinate the resources available to education, for the purpose of achieving the goals of the educational system.

Dictionary of Education by Good defines educational administration as “All those techniques and procedures employed in operating the educational organization in accordance with established policies is defined as administration.”

Grayson Kefauver has observed in The Forty Fifth Year Book of as, “Educational administration approaches statesmanship when there are clearly formulated long term policies and objectives, and when day-to-day activities and problems are dealt with under the guidance of the perspective given by such long – term policies .” According to National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE) “Educational Administration is a social statesmanship which guides educational activities, plans, programs mid facilities, and provides leadership in a long-term but broad social perspective.” Educational Administration has been defined by R. Mort as, “ the influencing of one group of human beings, the pupils, to grow towards defined objectives, utilizing a second group of human beings, the teachers, as agents; and operating in a setting of a third group of public, variously concerned both with objectives and with means used to achieve them.

Russell T. Gregg, in an article on Administration in Encyclopedia of Educational Research writes, “Educational Administration is the process of utilizing expropriate materials in such a way as to promote effectively the development of human qualities. It is concerned not only with the development of children and youth, but also with the growth of adults and particularly with the growth of school personnel.”

According to Samuel Mathai, “Educational Administration presumably means the combined operation of a large number of persons whereby the whole fabric of education in the country is maintained in good working condition. An administration is a person who has a part to play in running an institution. He is responsible servant whose duties may include both giving orders and carrying out orders.”

The International Encyclopedia of Higher Education (1988) edited by Asa S. Knowles and other reads “Educational Administration, in general, is concerned with the management of state and local school systems and with local school attendance units. Identified with the executive branch of government, educational administration is treated usually as a field of study in itself and not as a part of public administration. A more sophisticated definition of educational administration is,

“A social process concerned with creating, maintaining, stimulating, controlling and unifying, formally and informally organized human and material energy within a unified system designed to accomplish predetermined (educational) objectives.

The Encyclopedia of Education (1971) by IEEC. Deighton States, “Educational Administration is concerned with the overall direction and support of the schools. It includes the immediate leadership of the school principal and the specialized skills of the business manager, curriculum coordinator, and other staff specialists, all under the general supervision of the superintendent. The concept of administration as a profession evolved with the expansion of educational enterprise during the late nineteenth century.”

“Administration is justified only to the extent that it contributes to the capacity of organization to fulfil its primary mission. In the field of education, administration is justified only as it contributes to the capacity of the school to help children and youth to grow toward responsible boyhood

Levels of Administration

Here, it is important to identify the task areas and levels of the educational administrator. There are five main levels:

The Curriculum/Instructional Functions: Since the ultimate goal of educational administration has been teaching and learning, curriculum development and program management constitute an important area. The educational administrator ensures that instruction is directed to the requirement of examination bodies such as different examination boards. He is the academic change facilitator. He is the academic change He should, therefore, change the curriculum as and when

necessary to serve the needs and reflect the aspirations of the society. Work scheduling is an important function of the school administrator as an instructional manager and supervisor. He ensures that allocation of staff to their correct disciplines and equally supervises to ensure that their teaching contents are in line with the current and relevant syllabus and that such context get to the right students.

The Staff Personnel Functions: The education administrator is the first among He is the leader of the organization as he has staff under him to manage as his subordinates. He cannot make or manage the organization alone. He has to harness the potentials of his staff to his great advantage. He should place the necessary structures and allow his colleagues to participate in the organizational governance, especially as it affects them in their expertise and welfare. Under a good organizational climate, discipline and harmony naturally emerges.

Student Personnel Functions: The educational administrator also has the responsibility to manage the students put under his care The students are in their formative years. The administrator should have the grasp, full knowledge and understanding of the various stages of students’ developments and their relevant needs. This is done by providing relevant structures and programs capable of directing and shaping their academic and moral values. Students have advanced from passive on-lookers to active participants on issues and programs that affect them, especially with the formation of student-union governments and other such bodies existing in educational institutions today. Students should participate in decision-making and governance, especially in decisions that affect their well-being. Extra-curricular activities as well as adequate health services, moral and civic orientations, discipline and adequate inter-personal relations should be maintained.

Financial and Physical Resources Functions: The administrator has to be quite knowledgeable in finance management as this is one of his most crucial functions. He has to start with budgeting by properly articulating the cash inflow and outflow in the system. The prudent education administrator creates alternative strategies for cash inflow. The education administrator distributes the available resources among the competing needs in his organization preferentially. His financial management has to be apt and his accounting and financial reports straight. The educational administrator is responsible for the procurement and maintenance of educational plants and facilities. His procurement and maintenance of these infrastructures have to be properly planned and programmed. He determines the level of their usage or

The education administrator endeavours to promote school community relations through the participation of the school in community activities and projects, and community participation in some aspects of school life. The P.T.A. and other stake-holders in the school should join hands with the administrator to

formulate policies and reach major decisions as the situation demands. Once the community is in harmony with the school organization, some measure of success in guaranteed. The educational administrator must be constantly alert to the objectivity with which the community perceives its school and must interpret this into special implication. The education consumer is the public and to a large extent determines what goes on in the school organization. And therefore, the education administrator identifies what the education consumer wants from education and provides them accordingly.

The School Community Relations Functions: The community is the next-of-kin of school organization, and requires a joint responsibility of the administrator and the community. Although the school serves the community, it is the function or duty of this administrator to make the first move of positive relationship with the The educational enterprise is an open system. A social organization thrives on effective interrelationships within it and with its relevant publics.

Educational Administration and its Scope

Education is one of the hugest enterprises undertaken for the purpose of the development and growth of the individual and to meet the needs of society.

It involves the activity of a large number of people – students, teachers, parents and the public. For such a big enterprise we need a sound machinery to run it and effective principles to secure efficiency. There is need for the co-operative activity of all participants in the education process for the achievement of its goals. It is the task of administration to set up such machinery and make it work smoothly and effectively.

The scope of educational administration therefore extends to a vast area and a large variety of activities. We shall to understand the scope of educational administration taking cue from business and industry.

The scope of general administration under five areas more precisely, viz,

Production
Assuring public use
Finance and Accounting
Personnel, and

Applying these five areas to the fields of education we can try down the scope of educational administration:

Production: It refers to social activity of work for which an organization is set up. In education it means realization of the goals of education which have been set up by society. Educational administration has therefore to interpret the aims of education to the

educational workers so that they may shape the final product of education (the achievement of the pupils) in the desired form and shape.

Assuring Public Use: Assuring public use means that the activity and the product of the efforts of the organization, the goals and services produced, must be such that they are acceptable of use and benefit to the public, because it is for this that the public has set up the organization. It is the business of educational administration to define the operations needed, to make them known and to promote them so that the final educational product is good for public and the society.

Finance and Accounting: Finance and accounting refers to the receipt and disbursement of money invested in the activities of the organization. Educational administration is also concerned with receiving and spending money necessary for the operation and activities of the 16 educational machinery. It should record and measure the monetary and other resources invested in the educational enterprise and also evaluate the inputs and outputs. ,

Personnel: Personnel is the framing and operation of policies and procedures for recruitment of workers and maintenance of good-will and personal relationships among them in order to ensure fullest interest, cooperation moral and loyalty of all the persons working in the organization. This is especially important for the educational enterprise where the whole work is centered round the impact of one type of human beings, the teachers, upon another type of human beings, the students. The scope of educational administration, therefore, spreads over the personnel.

Coordination: it is an important activity of educational administration. It ensures the close inter-relation and integration of all the functional activities of the organization such as personnel, finance and production of desired results. Such integration has to be brought about not only in the structure of the organization but also of the attitudes and efforts of the workers, so that all of them pull together in the direction of the desired goals and achieve them.

Further, Sears has pointed out the scope of administration more specifically in relation to education as follows:

Establishing educational purpose, by expressing them in the form of aims and the

program of work in order to accomplish them, i.e., laying at the work of the organization.

Provision and development of the personnel and necessary finances, housing;

materials and facilities for carrying out the work of the organization, i.e., mobilizing resources of men and materials for the realization of the aims of education.

Laying down procedures and techniques for the performance of the work and the

policies and plans to guide the work, i.e., the curriculum and methods of teaching and supervision.

Defining the nature and procedure of use of authority (legal, official and personal) and control (scientific and democratic) by which the administrative process will
Deciding the nature of aims and procedures by which the administrative process

will operate.

Deciding the mechanism (structure and relationships) by which authority and power are applied in the administrative process. From the above discussion we find that the scope of educational administration is very wide and extends over many When the process starts working numerous problems arise and have to be solved on the basis of a broad social perspective and the 18 nation’s way of life.

In view of the innumerable activities that have to be performed by educational administration its scope may be broadly classified and delineated under the following areas:

Legal Structure: Legal structure refers to the laws that have to be passed and rules and regulations have to be framed in order to determine the agencies of education, their types, powers and standards of educational institutions to be run by them, to prescribe authority and control, to fix up responsibility and obligations, to decide the question of decentralization of management and to set up organizational and administrative machinery.

Pupils: Children are the center of the educational enterprise. It is for them that the entire process of education and its constituents exist. It is therefore necessary to determine the individual and social purposes and procedures of their education in accordance with their needs, interests and capacities and the demands of society. Rules for their admission, promotion, discipline, etc., have to be framed and implemented.

Personnel: To run educational activities necessary and adequate man-power has to be found and engaged. Personnel plays the key-role in education. This is the fly-wheel or the driving force of the educational machinery. Proper attention has to be paid to the workers. Men and women have to be selected, recruited and trained and their qualifications and standards have to be prescribed. Good service conditions like attractive salaries, security of tenure, welfare service and retirement benefits have to be offered to bring in the best available talent. Schemes for their direction, guidance and supervision have to be drawn up. Last but not the least, a good and effective program for the workers’ continuous development and professional progress through reorientation and in-service education has to be launched.

Finance: It is an important area which includes problems of income and expenditure and their accounting and auditing. Decisions have to be taken about the sharing of the cost of education by the centre and the States and the Local Bodies. The policy of taxation and prescribing fees, etc., has to be formulated. Rules and regulations have to be framed for budgeting, spending and controlling of funds and resources.

Curriculum: It is the means of achieving the goals of education. Educational administration has to deal with the problem of curriculum construction and its day to day development. It has also to look after the continuous evaluation and progressive improvement of the educational program which are urgently called for in view of the constantly going on scientific, technological and social changes. Administration has to pay close attention to the teaching-learning programs and processes and also to other instructional material. Important pupil services, such as health and recreation and psychological services of testing and records, guidance and counseling and co-curricular activities, etc., have to be organized and administered for the benefit of the young.

Physical Facilities: These comprise the area dealing with the problem of provision and maintenance of the school plant equipment and supplies, their production, purchase, upkeep and accounting.

Public Relation: Education is a social enterprise run with the cooperation of students, teachers, parents and the community. Educational administration has to make each of them contribute its due share to the success of the enterprise. It should, therefore, maintain effective public relations. This involves maintenance of records, issuing periodical reports, information and bulletins about past achievement and future proposals. Administration should encourage community visitation, and secure its participation and cooperation by a process of give and take, i.e., by utilizing community resources and rendering useful services for its welfare.

It is necessary to add a work of caution here. The above list and categorization are only suggestive and not exclusive. They are not arranged in any priority order, as all of them are equally necessary and important. The analysis has been made only for the sake of convenience of discussion and all the different areas of scope should be viewed with an approach to integration.

Administrative Roles and Responsibilities

Administration is the service rendered to the school and society in the task of achieving the educational goals by coordinating the efforts of the people engaged in the task. It is the process through which the functions of the school are discharged. Administration has therefore to perform some definite functions. Several attempts have been made to list these functions of which three of them have been noted below: Precisely, the basic role of educational administration can be expressed as below:

To delegate authority and responsibility.
To strengthen local initiative and local control.
To secure the greatest return from the money
To secure the goodwill of personnel, public education department and other social agencies and
To implement a democratically determined
To determine policies and to implement them.
To utilize maximally the special capacities of the personnel and the material
To integrate the units concede with the same problems or areas.

Further, the administrative process can be described as one having seven functions or components, according to Russell T. Gregg. These components are as follows

Decision making
Planning
Organizing
Communicating
Influencing
Coordinating; and

Here we can see that a long list of the functions of educational administration can be prepared and yet would remain in-exhaustive. And hence we believed that a fruitful exercise would be to classify the functions under some broad categories like purposes, planning, organizing, operating and evaluating. These five functions should be looked upon as stages in the administrative process but it must be remembered that they are not isolated activities. They often overlap and always produce results cumulatively.

Self-Assessment Questions

1 What is the difference between administration, educational administration and management? Precisely describe the concept of educational administration with examples?

2 We came away with the belief that the administrative functions are the scope of educational administration. It is important to identify the task areas of the educational administrator. What are the main task areas of educational administration, we need to identify. Keeping in mind the curriculum/Instructional Functions, The Staff Personnel Functions, Student Personnel Functions and The School Community Relations Functions.

3 Keeping in view the different definitions of educational administration and development in the ways to define it, write your own definition of educational administration.

Suggested Readings

Adesina, S. (1981). Introduction to Educational Planning. Ile-Ife. University of Ife Press Ltd. Aina, S. (1992). Personnel Management in Nigeria. Ikeja: F. Communication.

Adesina, S. (1990). Education Management. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. Griffiths, D. E. (1964). The Nature and Meaning of Theory. Chicago: University Press.

Hoy, W. & Miskel, C. (1987). Educational Administration: Theory, Research and Practice, 3^rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Koko, M. N. (2005). Human Management (A Practical Approach). Port Harcourt: Harey Publication Coy.

Lagos: YPPS. Amadi – Eric, C. (2005). Planning an English

Manila, B. B. (2003). Fundamental of Educational Planning and Administration (Concepts, Issues and Practices. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.

Nte, A. R. (2003). Foundation of Educational Management. Port Harcourt: Planning, Administration and Supervision.

Unit–2

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

Central Bodies of Educational Administration……………………………………….. 16
Provincial and Regional Structures of Educational Administration……………. 20
Administrative Structures of Government /Public Schools……………………….. 23
Administrative Structures of Private Schools…………………………………………. 26
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 28

2.6 Recommended Readings…………………………………………………………………… 28

INTRODUCTION

The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384 students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private institutions. This unit is dedicated to educational administrative structure of Pakistan in public versus private sector as well as provincial and regional administration.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the successful student is expected to:

Understand the difference between the structure of public and private educational administration in Pakistan.
Analyze the current distribution of education percentage in different sectors of
Evaluate the structure of provincial and regional educational
Understand the central bodies of educational administration and

Central Bodies of Educational Administration

There are basically seven central bodies of educational administration.

Educational Planning,
Educational Organization,
Educational Direction,
Educational Co-ordination,
Educational Supervision,
Educational Controlling, and
Educational Evaluation.

Educational Planning: Being the first aspect in the scope of educational administration planning implies a basic function that is how the aims and objectives are to be Before launching upon a particular educational program and implementing it the person or authority in-charge or at the helm of affairs is required to take decisions about the methods and strategies the objectives for effectively and efficiently. This means planning has to be carried out for administrating the total educational program and for this, the basic facts and figures, background, date and profile are necessary.

A plan is conceptualized as a predetermined strategy, detailed skills or program of action related to the achievement of an objective. It implies some kind of mental activity during the course of analysis or laying out a method of achieving something. As educational plan for making efforts to plan and bring deliberate change stands in the system of education for achieving identified and relevant objectives. Modern planning which are prevailing now and top most necessity of the prevailing society needs to be democratic, scientific and decentralized. There must be adequate participation of all concerned in the planning process. The decisions which can affect others must be taken in consultation with others. Nothing should be imposed from top, but should come from bottom. In view of the objectives and size, the plans may be long term, medium term and short term. This kind of planning usually promotes high moral, enthusiasm and motivation for work and success of the institutions or organizations.

According to Hagman and Schwartz, “Planning selects among alternatives, explores, routes before travel begins and identifies possible or probable outcomes or action before the executive and his organization is committed to any. Educational planning has been one of the early instruments of independent governments. Resources have to be used as effectively and systematically as possible.

Today, educational planning is an absolute requirement. The complexities of modern technology in the prevailing society have given rise to the need for planning in education. Educational planning is a process utilized by an administrator while performing the role of a leader, decision maker, and change agent and so on. It is a basic management task and a means of achieving higher levels of effectiveness.

Team Work: Modern educational planning doesn’t put stress on the fact that only the top administrator of the government should be involved in Rather

planning should be the responsibility of all people concerned with the desired change. For this a team of experts in the related area, responsible people and those who will implement the plan should determine the goals and appropriate ways of attaining them.

Decision-Making: Educational planning is the preparation of pre-courses in the decision making process. It has to help for determining the optional to be taken. While educational administration is mostly decision making, planning in education is only the other side of it.
Forecasting: Educational planning describes or defines determining events, needs and conditions of future time. It implies forecasting or projection of important factors in education such as number and types of pupils and expansion of facilities needed for them.
Social and Economic Goals: Modem educational planning emphasizes that the goals of a democratic society should be social and economic in nature concerning with the welfare and progress of all citizens rather than the self-centered or selfish goals of some special interest groups. The expected goals of the society and needs of children and young pupils in the schools and colleges should be the broad frame of reference.
Anticipation: Modern educational planning anticipates probable developments and needed change in future, much ahead of time so that proper facilities, supporting media and required resources for implementing the planned change may be Hence, relevant changes and efforts are avoided and the changes are effectively implemented.
Remedial Measures: This nature or characteristic of modern educational planning indicates that it is remedial and guidance oriented in nature and approach. With appropriate planning procedure it is possible to identify maladjustments or deficiencies in the system that causes educational problems. Identifying causes or the educational problems and suggesting relevant solution is the main objective of educational
Choice of Best Alternative: Modern educational planning is a logical, systematic and scientific process different from the elementary kinds of procedure utilized in the part of bringing about changes in the system of education.
Principles of Educational Planning: Educational planning or modem educational planning has the following principles:
1. Educational planning must be one aspect of general national planning.
2. Research is planning based on system
3. Planning must be a continuous
4. Planning should find a definite place in educational
5. Planning should take into consideration resources and establish conditions of
6. Planning must be realistic and
7. Planning must ensure active and continuing participation of all interested individuals and groups.
8. The content and scope of planning should be determined by the needs of the individuals and groups to be served.

Planning should utilize the services of specialists without allowing them to
Planning should provide opportunity for all persons and groups to understand and appreciate the
Planning should provide for continuous
Planning should have opportunity for modification for further

Educational Organization: An organization be defined as stable pattern of interaction, among conditions or groups having a collective identity (a name and a location) pursuing interest and achieving given tasks and coordinated through a system of Organizations are social units deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals.

Here it is essential to mention that the educational organizations or institutions are also considered as the social organizations. So schools, colleges, universities and training institutions may well be considered as social organizations. Educational organization means two things; one is the educational institution and the other is organization of resources. Let us discuss the organization of resources first and then the educational organization or institution. All types of resources meant for the educational program are organized or made available in an organization or institution for realizing the educational objectives or goals that are prefixed. Because poor organization leads to wastage and bad outcomes.

Interpersonal relations need to be improved for making an organization effective and adequate. Any formal organization has to be strengthened and supported by informal network of personal contacts and relations. There should be decentralization of facilities, delegation of powers and greater autonomy among the personnel. The hierarchical structure of administration is to be vested upon every person involved in the program. It is desirable to create the feeling of involvement and to develop adequately various advisory and consultative services within the organizations. Here the educational organization means the school organization. The school organization is a combination of two words. One is school and the other is organization. In order to understand the meaning of school organization, it is essential to understand the meaning of school and organization separately.

But as our concern is to know the features of school organization, let us know its different features.

All teachers without any discrimination should get the same
Teachers should get equal pay for equal work and similar qualifications.
Provisions for retirement and the corresponding benefits should be the same for all
Rules for the appointment of teachers should be the
Conditions of service should be the same despite differences in

Educational Direction: It is essential that there must be an authority or an order or a policy for providing direction to the management of every educational program and for taking decisions in solving the For this direction is necessary for giving leadership in order to implement the programs and carrying out the entire management. Democratization of management seeks to encourage the pride, enjoyment and growth among the individuals working in the organization. Each individual must work according to his needs, interests and capabilities.

Educational Co-Ordination: For making smooth management of every educational program for resulting in adequate realization of its goals or objectives, there is need of ensuring co-ordination and co-operation among the multifarious resources. Through this coordination all facilities will be unified and all services are harmonized. So through this aspect of educational management different kinds of resources especially human resources have to be interrelated or coordinated for utilizing the resources properly in an effective manner.

Educational Supervision: Educational administration and supervision are now regarded as the total process of making any educational program a grand For this, there is the need of ensuring and maintaining good inter-personal relationships between the administrator and supervisor, the supervisor and teachers, teachers and pupils, school and community etc.

Educational supervision is the means to co-ordinate stimulate and direct the growth of the teachers, to stimulate and direct the growth of every individual pupil through the exercise of his talents towards the achievement of richest goals.

In the modern perspective, educational supervision is an expert technical service primarily concerned with studying and improving the conditions that surround learning and pupil growth. So educational supervision is now conceived as process which has for its purpose for the general improvement of the total teaching-learning situation.

Characteristics of Educational Supervision:

The following are the characteristics of educational supervision in relation to the management of an educational program:

It is a creative and dynamic expert technical
It provides leadership with extra-knowledge and superior
It promotes co-operative educational efforts in a friendly
It stimulates the continuous growth of teachers and development of
It gives co-ordination, direction and guidance to teacher’s
It helps in achievement of appropriate educational aims and
It improves instruction and the teaching-learning

Educational Control: Controlling is exercised through proper technique that is the

Controlling is not similar to evaluation but it is meant to fulfill the purposes of evaluation. In order to fulfill the purposes of evaluation, the techniques of control are the policies, the budget, auditing, time table, curriculum, personal records etc.

Educational controlling involves the human elements in relation to the management of an educational program. Both men and women involved in the educational program should have to discharge their duties efficiently and effectively by being controlled.

Educational Evaluation: Being the last but not the least aspect of educational management, educational evaluation is an integral part of it as it determines the degree of realization of educational objectives or goals as well as the effectiveness of it; for this there must be evaluation short-term or long-term, periodic or continuous and formal or

This is necessary for bringing about improvement as desired in the management of educational institutions in the light of past experiences that may be failure or success or both. It is also desirable that both internal and external agencies need be involved in evaluating the achievement and performance of the individuals concerned with management. Various systems and subsystems should be assessed and reviewed from time to time. For this evaluation of student’s achievement and teachers performance should be done in a comprehensive and continuous way.

Provincial and Regional Structures of Educational Administration

It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list which comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including education, were transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial autonomy.

Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education policies at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on education. Besides, it further divides its educational structure into provincial and regional bases too. In this regard national education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate, capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational institutes. MDGs and education for all (EFA) programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.

The provincial institute for education administration can be represented with the help of flow diagram as shown below:

Evaluation Criteria for the administrative of educational institutes as well as trainees

Regularity and Punctuality 100% attendance in all the sessions)
Pre / Post Test Achievement
Observance of Conduct & Discipline
Attitude & Behavior (with Peer, Class in- charges, RPs and others)
Self & Peer Evaluation
Performance in Syndicate
Friendship & support
Assignments
Professionalism
Final grades obtained in the training are recorded on the certificates of each participant

Then comes in service e.g.

HRM Manual for Principal/Headmaster of GHSS/GHS (M & F)
Financial Management for Principal/Headmaster of GHSS/GHS (M &F))
Manual on School Management for Middle School Head Teachers
Manual on School Management for Primary School Head Teachers
Microsoft Office User Specialist (MOUS)
Personnel Management (HRD & HRM)
Financial Management
Academic Management
Research Methods, Techniques & Study conduction
Civil Service Act 1973 & Rules made there under
Manual on Disaster preparedness and Risk Management
Manual on psycho social Training for Teachers
Manual on Mine Risk Education for Teachers
Manual on Peace Education for Teachers
Community Participation & Parent Teacher Council (PTC)
Manual on School Sanitation & Hygiene Education
Manual for Teachers on Child Friendly Schools Concept
Manual for Teachers of Rehabilitation Centers
Manual for Middle School Head Teachers on Supervision

The target population for teachers are:

Primary School Teachers
Middle School Teachers
Secondary School Teacher
Subject Specialists
Community School Teachers
Feeder Schools Teachers
Accelerated Learning Program Teachers

Target Population for administrators are:

Head of Primary Schools
Head Teachers of Middle Schools
Headmasters/Headmistress of High Schools
Principals of Higher Secondary School
Education Managers (DEOs, DEOs, ASDEOs, ADOs heads/Principals of RITEs)

Training Methodologies:

Classroom lectures / Presentations
Group Work / Activities
Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Individual and Group Presentations
Study Tours
Cultural Evenings
Syndicate Work / Book reviews

Report Writing
- Administrative Structures of Government /Public Schools

In different developing countries such as, Pakistan there is an extraordinary need to enhance the education framework for development and advancement. Education is vital in preparing the individual as well as it is paramount in developing certainty and self- regard among the individuals and to make mindfulness among the individuals to know their parts and rights in the general public. A confirmation from the developing nations demonstrates that education is turning into a standout amongst the best instruments used to engage females and make resilience within the society. The education sector of Punjab has an exceptionally critical effect on the general economy of Pakistan.

There is difference between public and private schools such as : one is public schools have huge enrollments of students in one class. Larger numbers of students are taught by one teacher who provides same level and quality of education. While on the other side, in private schools there is less number of students in one class. It is easy to teach less number of students. Second is quality of education in both schools depending on number of students in classroom as well as on learning environment which is created by teachers .Third point is teaching and learning methodology are different in both schools which include syllabus, courses, recreational activities, physical structures, rewards in schools & future differs.

There are many issues which are confronted by the students studying in government schools. Let’s have a look on the issues faced by public school students.

Issues regarding ethics
Discrimination in Education
Unavailability of books
Security Issues
Teachers Are not as much cooperative
Campus Less Schools
Not Reasonable
Limited Syllabus
Favoritism in Paper Checking
Invigilators Are Not Fair while checking papers
Improper uniform
Lack of technological tools
Not Decently Prepared
Higher Enlistment In Classes
There is no system of conducting IQ tests in public academic system
A large number of students face Pick and Drop Issues
Conservative/restricted Environment
Lack of association between students and teachers as well as no teamwork
Favoritism issue
There Are Lesser Libraries In the public academic system
Teachers focus is more on bookish knowledge that is not a good sign for student
Hygienic problems
Improper Usage Of Possibilities
Mismanagement is a common problem

Since, Public schools give admissions to everyone. By law, government funded schools

must instruct all kids, incorporating students with exceptional needs. To elect in a

government funded school you just enlist your kid by rounding out the fundamental

paperwork. Moreover, Public schools must take after all government, state nd nearby

laws in instructing youngsters. Such laws generally incorporate specifics about financing,

project improvement and educational program. Furthermore, Public schools offer a

general project, intended for all kids, which usually includes1 math, English, perusing,

written work, science, history and physical instruction. Notwithstanding subjects, numerous government funded schools offer programs in

these key usic and

craftsmanship. In a state f nded school, the substance of what kids learn is commanded

by the state and learning is measured through state government sanctioned tests. Plus, in Public schools, all instructors in a state funded school are typically state affirmed or, at

any rate, moving in the dir ction of certificate. Confirmation guarantees that a instructor

has gone through the pre aration needed by the state, which incorporates understudy

showing and coursework. On the other hand, in Private schools, instructors in private

schools may not be obliged to have certificate, and rather regularly have knowledge aptitude and an undergrad or graduate degree in the subject they ed

In public schools, the kids at most state funded schools generally reflect

branch of cate.

the group.

Students may be part up

focused around capacity or diversions, yet in

numerous

government funded schools, there is an assorted quality of student foundations. The

student strength at a private school is resolved through a determination tra students must apply and be acknowledged with a specific end goal to go to. In

sform; all pite of the

fact that students may be from diverse neighborhoods, they will presumably have

comparable objectives a

d hobbies. This has a tendency to make a

genuinely

homogenous understudy body.

The management and administration of public school comprise of principal, head master,

teachers, instructors and other staff is under the employment of government. Since

government pay them salary and other fringe benefits, they on the other hand show least interest in educating students. There should be check and balance on teachers and other administration in public sector schools either.

Administrative Structures of Private Schools

Education is a lifelong process and it is obtained by different sources. The formal education process is going on and on throughout the world where two types of educational institutions, e.g. public schools and private schools.

The private sector in education is playing very important role in delivering quality education. A quite reasonable proportion of students, 34% of the total enrolled students are in private sector schools. Public sector has homogeneous and traditional type of administrative structures whereas private sector has various, innovative and different type of administrative structures. Here, the structures were ranked by giving them administrative structure score on the basis of the variety, horizontal layout, vertical lay out and gender wise positions held by different key figures running the schools from day to day. It is recommended that a training mechanism may be developed to provide training to private school administrators, the schools should display their rules and regulations in black and white, a minimum qualification for managers and schools administrators may also be made compulsory by the boards.

The public schools have a set and homogeneous management structure which is followed by all the public schools while in private sectors there are many varieties of school management structures. These structures play very effective role and provide result oriented education in the present era. Except a few, the world class education or quality education is mostly imparted by these private sector schools all over the world. Being a developing country, it is an imperative and urgent need of the time to have a vigilant and efficient management structures which could meet the change and challenges of this

century as well as compete the world education market. The great influences and lasting impact set out by formal education for development of the future in general of the country, depends on the systems which exist in that country. In Pakistan there are different kinds of parallel streams in school education that have created imbalance and unequal opportunities for students belonging to different strata of society. The school education is generally divided into public sector schools, private schools and Madrassah. These streams are further classified into elite and non-elite schools. The elite schools cater to the economically well to do people. A very few of the schools like Cadet Colleges allow talented children of the lower middle classes. The high social strata schools cover up a very small minority in proportion of all the school going children. The majority of lower middle class and poor children have no other choice than to study in these low quality private and public schools.

There are many factors that lead to the differences that exist in our educational system. That is why the performance of the urban schools in board exams and in Cambridge or London University examination system is far better than the rural schools with only a few exceptions. These schools have an efficient management system; abundant resources and excellent teaching quality, so are their main strengths. There are many private schools in all the cities of Pakistan that are usually run by individual entrepreneurs or sometimes administrative body who intend to earn a living by offering unique and personalized educational services to an ever-expanding clientele which is motivated and driven out towards private sectors in Pakistan. There are many factors behind this social phenomenon which needs to be discussed in the following lines.

First of all the teaching and learning process is mostly dependent on the administrators, principals, headmasters and headmistresses to carry out a smooth and cordial teaching learning process on one hand while on the other hand they ought to provide conducive environment and physical facilities to remove each and every hurdle in the way of imparting education. The administration is easily accessible and parents having lack of time want to meet them as per their convenient. Therefore, they give preference to private sectors schools.

Second, it has been found that the quality of education imparted by these schools depends on their administrative skills and utilization of the manpower in such a way that produce result by using minimum resources. The quality of a school rests entirely upon the competence, capacity and motivation level of its administration and teachers. The administration does not only have academic excellence but they should also have good communication skills, vision and implementation strategies.

Third, the difference in public and private sector is quite eminent. There are many studies conducted to find out management relationship of public sectors school but there is not enough work based on private sectors as per its contribution and role. The public sector administrative system and structure are same everywhere in Pakistan but in private sector has variety of management type and structures which make each school an independent pattern. In this study it is observed that there are ample varieties of structures in private sectors. There is hardly any similar structure in these private schools that make them distinguished and separated from others.

Fourth, the curriculum that these schools have selected is by choice not by compulsion that brings quality and variety to teachers for effective teaching. The syllabus opted by school management represents vision and expertise of the administration to make their student world class learner and keep them in touch with changing requirement of the world.

Fifth, the co-curricular activities develop an interest and ambition to become regular in the class. The competition among students of their attendance, cleanliness, behaviors, discipline and cooperation and homework bring a positive change in students which can apparently be observed by parents and teachers. This duty is discharged by the management of the schools.

Sixth, the cordial attitude of the teachers in private sector and avoidance of punishment prevent parents to drag their children toward school. The children themselves like to go there and there is least dropout rate in private sector because of teachers‟ behaviors which is a direct result of administration of the school.

Self-Assessment Questions

1 Since 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are public institutes in Pakistan. How the structure of educational administration adversely or positively affect these institutions or it is the institute that affect administration? Give elaborated reasons.

2 Pakistan has 4 provinces, two disputed territories (GB and Kashmir), one federally administrative tribal area (FATA) and ICT (Islamabad, the Federal) what is the structure of administration of these educational institutes? If it is same for all, do you think it needs improvement? Support your answer with examples.

Recommended Readings

Ammermuller, A. (2005). Educational Opportunities and the Role of Institutions. Centre for European Economic Research, Mannheim.

Aslam, M. (2007). The Relative Effectiveness of Government and Private Schools in Pakistan: Are Girls Worse Off? RECOUP Working Paper No. 4.

Bifulco, R., H.F. Ladd and S.L Ross. (2009). “The effects of Public School Choice on Those Left Behind: Evidence from Durham, North Carolina”. Peabody Journal of Education.

Böhlmark, A. and M. Lindahl. (2007). The Impact of School Choice on Pupil Achievement, Segregation and Costs: Swedish Evidence. In A. School Reform, Educational Achievement and Lifetime Income, Department of Economics, Stockholm University.

Brewer, D. and G. Hentschke. (2009). An International Perspective on Publicly- Financed, Privately-Operated Schools. In M. Berends (ed.)

Unit–3

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Compiled by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Revised by: Dr. Nasrullah

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………… 31

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31

School Heads’ Responsibilities……………………………………………………………. 31
Academic Heads’ Responsibilities……………………………………………………….. 33
Administration Office and Its functions……………………………………………….. 35
Administrative Personal……………………………………………………………………… 36
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 38
Recommended Readings……………………………………………………………………. 38

INTRODUCTION

This unit comprises of key responsibilities of School heads, principals, head teachers and academic heads. It includes the detail over view of administrative role in academic institutes besides having a detailed discussion on academic personals.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the successful student will be able to:

Recognize the key differences between School Principals/heads, Head Teachers and academic
Analyse the proportion of time spend on the key functions of the role of School Principal
Plan to increase the effectiveness in the role of head of school and other educational
Analyze the key responsibilities of administration and administrative
Identify how the world’s most effective principals fulfil their

School Heads’ Responsibilities

Heads of School are appointed by, and are formally accountable to higher management. The head will exercise his/her authority in consultation with the school executive, in consideration of a consensus of the school committee, and with due delegation of responsibilities as appropriate.

The effective discharge of the Head’s responsibilities and accountability necessitates that he/she retains the confidence of the School Executive through leadership that is exercised in a fair, open and responsive manner. The head of school is responsible for the effective general management of the school, for ensuring the provision of academic leadership and strategic vision, and for the quality of the student experience. The head of school will be the budget holder, following devolved authority, and will be financially accountable to the Faculty Dean (in the first instance) for the School.

The responsibilities of the Head of School include:

Strategic and Budgetary Planning
Developing a strategic plan for the school, in consultation with the school Executive, including the preparation of a staffing and resource plan.
Engaging the staff of the school and the University’s senior officers in devising and agreeing the school’s plan.
Reviewing the performance of the school in terms of its objectives as stated in its strategic plan and in its staffing and resource plan.
Having responsibility for all financial matters, including financial planning and sustainability, resource allocation, the identification of new sources of income, the monitoring of expenditure to ensure that it is within appropriate levels, ensuring the

linking of resource allocation to strategic and operational planning; compliance with college approved financial policies; ensuring all staff are aware of the existence and extent of the financial regulations.

Managing and monitoring of implementation of the resource allocation process within the school.

Staffing
Dealing with staff recruitment matters that fall within the remit of the
Membership of the Selection Committees for all appointments in the school. (The Head of Discipline may replace the Head of School as )
Creating a supportive working environment for all staff in the School and fostering their career
Ensuring that staff review and development is completed in a timely manner (including PMDS).
Completing probation reviews with all newly appointed academic staff in line with the Probation Guidelines, in consultation with the relevant Heads of Discipline where
Allocating duties to staff within the School and the management of staff in accordance with policies and procedures.
Approving outside earnings activities of staff members in accordance with
Handling grievance procedures for staff except where a grievance is against the Head of School, in which case the district officer is
Managing relevant disciplinary procedures for both staff and students

Teaching, Learning and

This includes the following key points:

Having overall responsibility for the management of the School’s program of teaching and research and the implementation of the academic
Ensuring the effective delivery of high quality teaching and the maintenance of academic standards.
Promoting a culture of learning that is directed to student needs, and of teaching that is informed by the research interests of the School’s
Dealing with professional matters where relevant to the activities of disciplines and in particular, the educational requirements of professional accreditation
Fostering the development of academic policy and initiatives within the context of the long-term strategies of the School.
Developing and maintaining a vibrant research culture of international standard, including the promotion of research initiatives and networks.
Fostering interdisciplinary both within the School and between
Promoting excellence and improvement in all matters of teaching, learning, research and
Ensuring the regular review, evaluation and development of programs offered by the School.

Promoting collaboration within the School, with other schools, and with other
Liaising appropriately with the management on cross-school and staff-wide
Nominating External Examiners for examinations of different

General
Representing the School both internally and externally, including representation on College committees.
Managing and encouraging an information flow to staff and students within the School regarding School and University
Ensuring the effective operation of the School in accordance with approved governance
The general management, subject to policy, of the School’s physical facilities and equipment, including the allocation of rooms and other
Having overall responsibility for ensuring that the School’s arrangements comply with legal requirements and related policies such as health and safety, data protection and data retention policy, freedom of information.
Implementing decisions of department and the supply of information in accordance with department
Prepare an annual report in agreement with the School’s Executive Committee and

for consideration by the School Committee.

Delegating to an Acting-Head during any period of absence of more than three working
Other duties as may be assigned by the

Absence of Head of School /Acting Headship

Where a Head of School will be absent from school for more than three consecutive days (but less than 21 days), the Head must appoint with the agreement of the individual concerned, a Acting Head of School.

Academic Head’s Responsibilities

The prime role of the Head of an institution is to provide strong academic leadership. The Head is required to lead, manage and develop the institution to ensure it achieves the highest possible standards of excellence in all its activities. They will be supported by the staff, and by colleagues.

All Heads of institutions are required to exercise leadership, demonstrate vision, and empower others in order to deliver the agreed departmental strategy. It is recognized that the methods by which Heads carry out their duties and the extent of delegation, will depend on such factors as the size and nature of the institution.

Specifically the role will include:

Leadership and Management
be responsible and accountable for setting and advancing the academic strategy of the Department.

be an active member of the institute and contribute to the overall leadership and management of the staff: it is expected that Heads will carry functional responsibility for specific targets of the department
develop and sustain appropriate structures for management, consultation, decision- making and communication with staff and students
promote and represent the institution both internally and externally

Responsibility for Teaching and Students
ensure the best possible student experience through:
the fulfillment of the institutional responsibilities concerning students in respect of their admission, instruction, progress and examination;
adherence to the regulations and procedures of department
refresh and develop new programs in order to attract new students and markets

Knowledge Transfer
create and exploit new opportunities for knowledge transfer activity in order to secure additional income streams and new areas of teaching and/or research
contribute to institution-wide initiatives in order to improve understanding and communication of this area

People Management
ensure that departmental HR policies and procedures are implemented
ensure that staff performance is managed appropriately and in a way that is consistent with the expectations of the department, and that fair workload allocation processes are in place
ensure all staff have access to the necessary support to enable them to contribute fully and develop their skills and experience
engender a culture of excellence, co-operation and respect both within and beyond the department
make effective use of all staffing resources and seek opportunities for collaboration and joint working with others
ensure students are included as appropriate in the various decision making within the school
ensure a safe and healthy environment for both staff and students, and full compliance with health and safety requirements

Financial Management
take responsibility for devolved budgets and comply with financial regulations
manage income and expenditure in order to promote financial sustainability
ensure adherence to all Departmental members, with Financial Regulations and other financial operating procedures and regulations
ensure that equipment/facilities under the institution control are properly maintained and serviced as

Quality Assurance
ensure all activities are carried out to the highest possible standards and put in place the necessary evaluation and monitoring procedures to ensure both compliance and improvement: such procedures will include teaching and management of all resources
comply with auditing, quality assurance and risk management procedures both internal and external

Development of Academic/Research Standing
continue to develop one´s position as a leading academic researcher; including publication, securing of external funding and the pursuit of other relevant indicators of standing in the field
give due consideration to ways of retaining connections with teaching
give due consideration to the status of Head as a role model for other members of staff in the pursuit of academic excellence

Person Specification for Head of Department

The candidate will:

have a very strong academic record and understanding
normally be at professorial level – although skills and aptitude will be more important
have a very good understanding of the academic disciplines within the He/she must possess following skills (human capital)
have the ability to engage constructively with people
have excellent communication skills
have very good ambassadorial and diplomatic skills
have the ability to manage a number of competing demands
have excellent delegation skills
be flexible and adapt to changing circumstances
be able to develop their skills and seek advice from a variety of sources
be willing and able to exercise judgment and take risks

Administration Office and Its Functions

The prime roles of administrative office in an academic institute involves the following general responsibilities:

Governance of the School or Centre and the establishment and development of its strategic direction;
Guidance and development of teaching and research;
Guidance and development of staff and the management of staff-related issues;
Management of finances and infrastructure through effective planning, revenue generation, budgeting and expenditure control; and
Internationalization of the School or

Specific responsibilities within each broad area of the role of administration is listed below:

Academic Leadership

Encourage the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning and in research;
Promote collaboration with other schools or centers where appropriate;

Maintain personal academic standing, including the pursuit of research and scholarship;
Represent the interests and needs of the School or Centre and to the external community; and
Represent the interests and needs of the School or Centre
- Governance
Establish and maintain a suitable organizational and committee structure;
Consult with relevant committees and staff;
Develop and maintain the strategic and academic planning functions including the setting of goals and targets in the context of School.
Develop and maintain quality assurance processes, particularly in relation to teaching, research and the supervision of students;
Allocate duties to staff in an equitable manner to ensure the effective and efficient

performance of the teaching, research and service functions, using the workload Allocation for Academic Staff – Guidelines

Provide information to relevant School/University
- Staff Guidance and Human Resource Management
Manage human resource issues, including the recruitment and selection of staff, staff appraisal by the conduct of annual reviews for relevant staff, performance management issues and staff grievances;
Comply with the Academic Enterprise Agreement and policies;
Support professional development of staff; and
Establish mechanisms to ensure that equity and workplace health and safety policies are observed.

Financial and Infrastructural Management

Manage finances including budgeting and planning for equipment and other infrastructure expenditure, and monitoring expenditure against allocations;
Pursue opportunities to increase revenue, especially by attracting full fee-paying students, developing links and partnerships with business and industry and commercializing the results of research and intellectual property;
Manage and maintain school or center space and infrastructure resources; and
Protect intellectual

3.4.5 External Relations

Maintain effective links with government departments and authorities, and ensure that the relevant offices are informed of the contacts;
Contact business, commerce and industry organizations relevant to the School’s
Maintain effective links with students;
Maintain links with employers of students;
Set up and maintain productive links with other sources of learning

Administrative Personal

Most organizations have a division that oversees organizational policies and employee services. This division is often referred to as human resources or office of personnel

management (OPM). A personnel administration specialist is a professional who provides support and administrative services to the personnel division. These professionals are also referred to as human resources assistants or specialists.

In academics, as authorized by the superintendent, administrative personnel shall have full responsibility for the day-to-day administration of the tasks to which they are assigned.

Administrative staff members are governed by the policies of the district and are responsible for implementing the administrative procedures which relate to their assigned responsibilities. Each administrator’s duties shall include but not be limited to:

Planning for the improvement of the program for which he/she is
Evaluating that program
Recommending to the superintendent budgetary, program, personnel and other changes that will enhance the program.
Advising the superintendent of the impact of proposed policies or other administrative actions on the program for which he/she is
Evaluating the performance of those employees reporting directly to him/her.
Assisting his/her subordinates to improve their
Promoting effective working relationships with students, staff and patrons of the The superintendent shall define the specific responsibilities of administrative staff members through a written job description.

Besides these there are few other responsibilities of administrative personal in organizational sector. Some are given below:

Department Support

A personnel administrative specialist provides support to the staff of the personnel department by ensuring the department accomplishes assigned responsibilities on a daily basis. This can include coordinating events, arranging meetings and travel plans, creating presentations, preparing reports, answering departmental phones and taking messages for other department staff when they are unavailable.

Documentation

Along with supporting other members of the personnel department, these professionals prepare and maintain all related documentation and employee files for an organization. This includes confidential electronic and paper documentation, such as employment contracts, performance reviews, as well as benefits and compensation information. This documentation is confidential and is required to be secured by the personnel administrative specialist. These professionals often hold all keys and passwords for this information, and access the information for other department staff as requested. This can include creating and compiling personnel reports, and retrieving employee files as requested.

Employee Relations

Personnel administrative specialists are often the gatekeeper of the human resources or personnel department, and assist employees as much as possible

unless there’s a need to direct questions and concerns to other department staff. These professionals assist the personnel staff by handling some employee’s relations functions. This can include new employee orientation, enrolling employees in company programs, employee relationship counseling, as well as answering employee questions regarding their benefits and compensation.

Self-Assessment Questions

1 Keeping in mind the general and specific responsibilities of school head, strategic and Budgetary Planning, Teaching, and Learning, how do you see the future of Pakistan’s academic institutes? Is there any room of improvement? If yes then explain why?

2 What are the key roles and responsibilities of school head?

3 Differentiate between the financial management and people’s management? Do they have any link with quality assurance? Explain it with elaborated examples.

Recommended Readings

Andrew, Porter. (2008). Assessment of Leadership in Education: Technical Manual.

Vanderbilt University.

Bradley S. Portin. (2009). Leadership for Learning Improvement in Urban Schools.

University of Washington,

Bradley, S., Portin, Michael., S, Knapp., Scott, Dareff., Sue, Feldman., Felice, A., Russell, Catherine., Samuelson, and Theresa, LingYeh.(2000). Leadership for Learning Improvement in Urban Schools. University of Washington.

Catherine, H., Augustine, Gonzalez., Gina, Schuyler., Ikemoto, Jennifer., Russell, Gail., L, Zellman., Louay, Constant., Jane, Armstrong., and Jacob, W, Dembosky. (2009). Improving School Leadership: The Promise of Cohesive Leadership Systems. RAND Corporation.

Knapp., Kim, Marshall. (2003). A Principal Looks Back: Standards Matter. Phi Delta Kappan.

Unit–4

EVALUATIVE ROLE OF ADMINISTRATION

Compiled by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Reviewed by: Dr. Nasrullah

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………… 41

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41

Performance Appraisal………………………………………………………………………. 42
Financial Audits………………………………………………………………………………… 48
Academic Audit………………………………………………………………………………… 49
Administrative Evaluation………………………………………………………………….. 53
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 54
Activity……………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
Recommended Readings……………………………………………………………………. 54

INTRODUCTION

This unit comprises of the concept of auditing in general and administrative evaluation and performance appraisal in specific. The main focus is given to the financial and academic audit, their components, principles and scope in academic institutes as well as organizational sector. However, a detailed light has been thrown to administrative evaluation and its importance.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this course, the students are likely to be able to:

Understand the concept of auditing, Element and principles of academic as well as financial
Realize the importance of administrative evaluation and performance appraisal
Write an audit report of an academic institute or an organization.
Conduct a research or an audit of any organization or academic institute single

Performance Appraisal

The purpose of the performance appraisal process is to provide consistent and equitable performance appraisal of all School administrators. The program is designed to focus on results and the alignment of all administrative employees with School goals.

There is a focus on behaviours that support School values and culture with a commitment to goal setting and assessment. The performance appraisal system provides an opportunity for an objective dialogue between the employee and the supervisor about the individual’s work performance. An employee performance appraisal form must be prepared for each employee every twelve months. An interim review can be prepared whenever there is a change in the employee’s performance sufficient to affect the overall rating of the previous review or whenever departmental procedures require an interim review for special purposes.

Scope: This policy applies to all education institution’s administrators. The educational institute is committed to attract, develop, manage, and retain a high performing diverse and productive workforce. Effective performance management is necessary. Employee performance standards and accountability linked to institutes mission, strategic plan and priorities are vital components of performance management.

Procedures: The performance review process shall be conducted in accordance with the following procedures.

The Performance Management process has a four-phase approach: Planning, Coaching, Reviewing, and
The performance cycle is in line with the fiscal year, July 1 through June
The Department of Human Resources will use the administrative appraisal program to ensure that appraisal forms are accessible to the immediate supervisor and the second level

Planning:

Supervisors/managers will send their respective employees an Appraisal e-mail during the appraisal period to review the employee’s position description and goals for the fiscal year, if established, for the rating cycle to ensure the appraisal relates to the specific responsibilities, job assignments, and standards that were conveyed to the employee for the rating cycle. A copy of the employee’s position description may be requested and should be used as a guideline for this aspect of the
Division/department supervisors communicate institute/organization’s goals to administrative
Individual administrative employees develop drafts of individual goals using the SMART format; (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time-based).
The supervisor and the employee review goals and objectives. To ensure proper objectivity, the supervisor should make certain that goals are set with the standards and requirements of the position in mind, not person holding the position.

Coaching:

The supervisor tracks individual performance and reinforces/coaches to improve performance and further develop the

The administrative employee informs the supervisor about any success/barriers to Together they assess the on-going relevance of goals and make appropriate modifications.
The supervisor or employee may initiate interim review meetings to discuss performance progress to date.

Reviewing:

No later than deadline supervisors/managers will conduct performance appraisals
At the end of the performance cycle, the employee provides the supervisor with the actual results achieved and the supervisor completes the appraisal. The supervisor evaluates each goal and the system will calculate an overall Comments are to be provided as appropriate.
The supervisor also evaluates and rates each Competency at this time. The overall rating at the end of the Competencies section is system
The supervisor completes the accomplishment(s) section of the Professional Development Plan component of the form.
The appraisal will be based on the employee’s performance during the entire review period, not isolated incidents or performance prior to the review period being
Comments sections should be used to support performance ratings, indicate problem areas and provide guidance to employees on how to improve performance. Comments must be provided for “Exceeds Standards”, “Below Standards/Needs Improvement”, and “Unsatisfactory” ratings, and are highly recommended for all
The person who completes and signs a performance evaluation report as the rater of an employee must be the employee’s immediate
When the employee has worked under more than one supervisor during a rating period, the supervisor under whom the employee was working at the time the change in assignment occurred shall prepare an appraisal for the period as the employee’s The appraisal should be discussed with the reviewing officer prior to discussion with the employee. The reviewing officer should date and sign the appraisal form at that time. (The reviewing officer is the supervisor’s supervisor.)
The performance discussion is the most important step in the performance review The appraisal shall be reviewed with the employee in a face-to-face discussion. The discussion should be under circumstances affording an informal, relaxed and private discussion. It is strongly recommended that the review be held at the time the employee is shown the appraisal for the first time. After discussion, any necessary adjustments can be made to the appraisal at this time.

Following discussion of the rating with the employee, the employee should mark date, sign and complete the comments section. The employee can request a meeting with the reviewing officer if necessary.

Performance Appraisal Methods

“It is a systematic evaluation of an individual with respect to performance on the job and individual’s potential for development.” “It is formal, structured system of measuring, evaluating job related behaviors and outcomes to discover reasons of performance and how to perform effectively in future so that employee, organization and society all benefits.”

Meaning of Performance Appraisals

Performance Appraisals is the assessment of individual’s performance in a systematic way. It is a developmental tool used for all round development of the employee and the organization. The performance is measured against such factors as job knowledge, quality and quantity of output, initiative, leadership abilities, supervision, dependability, co- operation, judgment, versatility and health. Assessment should be confined to past as well as potential performance also. The second definition is more focused on behaviors as a part of assessment because behaviors do affect job results.

Performance Appraisals and Job Analysis Relationship

Job Analysis	Performance Standards	Performance Appraisals
Describe the work and personnel requirement of a particular job.	Translate job requirements into levels of acceptable or unacceptable performance	Describe the job relevant strengths and weaknesses of each individual.

Objectives of Performance Appraisals Use of Performance Appraisals

Promotions
Confirmations
Training and Development
Compensation Reviews
Competency Building
Improve Communication
Evaluation of HR Programs
Feedback & Grievances

4 Goals of Performance Appraisals

General Goals

Specific Goals

Developmental Use

Individual Needs Performance Feedback Transfers and Placements

Strengths and Development Needs

Administrative Decisions / Uses

Salary Promotion

Retention / Termination Recognition

Lay offs

Poor Performers Identification

Organizational Maintenance

HR Planning Training Needs

Organizational Goal Achievements Goal Identification

HR Systems Evaluation

Reinforcement of Organizational Needs

Documentation

Validation Research For HR Decisions Legal Requirements

Performance Appraisal Process

Objectives definition of appraisal
Job expectations establishment
Design an appraisal program
Appraise the performance
Performance Interviews
Use data for appropriate purposes
Identify opportunities variables
Using social processes, physical processes, human and computer assistance

Difference between Traditional and Modern (Systems) approach to Appraisals

Categories	Traditional Appraisals	Modern, Systems Appraisals
Guiding Values	Individualistic, Control oriented, Documentary	Systematic, Developmental, Problem Solving
Leadership Styles	Directional, Evaluative	Facilitative, Coaching
Frequency	Occasional	Frequent
Formalities	High	Low
Rewards	Individualistic	Grouped, Organizational

TECHNIQUES / METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS

Numerous methods have been devised to measure the quantity and quality of performance appraisals. Each of the methods is effective for some purposes for some organizations only. None should be dismissed or accepted as appropriate except as they relate to the particular needs of the organization or an employee.

Broadly all methods of appraisals can be divided into two different categories.

Past Oriented Methods
Future Oriented Methods

Past Oriented Methods

Rating Scales: Rating scales consists of several numerical scales representing job related performance criterions such as dependability, initiative, output, attendance,

attitude etc. Each scales ranges from excellent to poor. The total numerical scores are computed and final conclusions are derived. Advantages – Adaptability, easy to use, low cost, every type of job can be evaluated, large number of employees covered, no formal training required. Disadvantages – Rater’s biases.

Checklist: Under this method, checklist of statements of traits of employee in the form of Yes or No based questions is Here the rater only does the reporting or checking and HR department does the actual evaluation. Advantages – economy, ease of administration, limited training required, standardization. Disadvantages – Raters biases, use of improper weighs by HR, does not allow rater to give relative ratings.
Forced Choice Method: The series of statements arranged in the blocks of two or more are given and the rater indicates which statement is true or false. The rater is forced to make a choice. HR department does actual assessment. Advantages – Absence of personal biases because of forced choice. Disadvantages – Statements may be wrongly
Forced Distribution Method: Here employees are clustered around a high point on a rating scale. Rater is compelled to distribute the employees on all points on the It is assumed that the performance is conformed to normal distribution. Advantages – Eliminates Disadvantages – Assumption of normal distribution, unrealistic, errors of central tendency.
Critical Incidents Method: The approach is focused on certain critical behaviors of employee that makes all the difference in the performance. Supervisors as and when they occur record such incidents. Advantages – Evaluations are based on actual job behaviors, ratings are supported by descriptions, feedback is easy, reduces decency biases, chances of subordinate improvement are Disadvantages – Negative incidents can be prioritized, forgetting incidents, overly close supervision; feedback may be too much and may appear to be punishment.
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales: Statements of effective and ineffective behaviors determine the points. They are said to be behaviorally anchored. The rater is supposed to say, which behavior describes the employee Advantages – helps overcome rating errors. Disadvantages – Suffers from distortions inherent in most rating techniques.
Field Review Method: This is an appraisal done by someone outside employees’ own department usually from corporate or HR Advantages – Useful for managerial level promotions, when comparable information is needed, Disadvantages – Outsider is generally not familiar with employees work environment, Observation of actual behaviors not possible.
Performance Tests & Observations: This is based on the test of knowledge or The tests may be written or an actual presentation of skills. Tests must be reliable and validated to be useful. Advantage – Tests may be apt to measure potential more than actual performance. Disadvantages – Tests may suffer if costs of test development or administration are high.
Confidential Records: Mostly used by government departments, however its application in industry is not ruled out. Here the report is given in the form of Annual Confidentiality Report (ACR) and may record ratings with respect to

following items; attendance, self expression, team work, leadership, initiative, technical ability, reasoning ability, originality and resourcefulness etc. The system is highly secretive and confidential. Feedback to the assessee is given only in case of an adverse entry. Disadvantage is that it is highly subjective and ratings can be manipulated because the evaluations are linked to HR actions like promotions etc.

Essay Method: In this method the rater writes down the employee description in detail within a number of broad categories like, overall impression of performance, promoteability of employee, existing capabilities and qualifications of performing jobs, strengths and weaknesses and training needs of the employee. Advantage – It is extremely useful in filing information gaps about the employees that often occur in a better-structured checklist. Disadvantages – It its highly dependent upon the writing skills of rater and most of them are not good They may get confused success depends on the memory power of raters.
Cost Accounting Method: Here performance is evaluated from the monetary returns yields to his or her organization. Cost to keep employee, and benefit the organization derives is ascertained. Hence it is more dependent upon cost and benefit
Comparative Evaluation Method (Ranking & Paired Comparisons): These are collection of different methods that compare performance with that of other co- The usual techniques used may be ranking methods and paired comparison method.
- Ranking Methods: Superior ranks his worker based on merit, from best to However how best and why best are not elaborated in this method. It is easy to administer and explanation.
- Paired Comparison Methods: In this method each employee is rated with another employee in the form of pairs. The number of comparisons may be calculated with the help of a formula as under.

N x (N-1) / 2

Future Oriented Methods

Management by objectives: It means management by objectives and the performance is rated against the achievement of objectives stated by the MBO process goes as under.

Establish goals and desired outcomes for each subordinate
Setting performance standards
Comparison of actual goals with goals attained by the employee
Establish new goals and new strategies for goals not achieved in previous

Advantage – It is more useful for managerial positions.

Disadvantages – Not applicable to all jobs, allocation of merit pay may result in setting short-term goals rather than important and long-term goals etc.

Psychological Appraisals: These appraisals are more directed to assess employees potential for future performance rather than the past It is done in the form of in- depth interviews, psychological tests, and discussion with supervisors and review of other evaluations. It is more focused on employees emotional, intellectual, and

motivational and other personal characteristics affecting his performance. This approach is slow and costly and may be useful for bright young members who may have considerable potential. However quality of these appraisals largely depend upon the skills of psychologists who perform the evaluation.

Assessment Centers: This technique was first developed in USA and UK in 1943. An assessment center is a central location where managers may come together to have their participation in job related exercises evaluated by trained observers. It is more focused on observation of behaviors across a series of select exercises or work samples. Assessees are requested to participate in in-basket exercises, work groups, computer simulations, role playing and other similar activities which require same attributes for successful performance in actual job. The characteristics assessed in assessment center can be assertiveness, persuasive ability, communicating ability, planning and organizational ability, self confidence, resistance to stress, energy level, decision making, sensitivity to feelings, administrative ability, creativity and mental alertness etc. Disadvantages – Costs of employees traveling and lodging, psychologists, ratings strongly influenced by assessee’s inter-personal skills. Solid performers may feel suffocated in simulated Those who are not selected for this also may get affected.

Advantages – well-conducted assessment center can achieve better forecasts of future performance and progress than other methods of appraisals. Also reliability, content validity and predictive ability are said to be high in assessment centers. The tests also make sure that the wrong people are not hired or promoted. Finally it clearly defines the criteria for selection and promotion.

360-Degree Feedback: It is a technique which is systematic collection of performance data on an individual group, derived from a number of stakeholders like immediate supervisors, team members, customers, peers and In fact anyone who has useful information on how an employee does a job may be one of the appraisers. This technique is highly useful in terms of broader perspective, greater self-development and multi-source feedback is useful. 360-degree appraisals are useful to measure inter-personal skills, customer satisfaction and team building skills. However on the negative side, receiving feedback from multiple sources can be intimidating, threatening etc. Multiple raters may be less adept at providing balanced and objective feedback.

Financial Audits

Financial audits dig deep into an institutions/organization’s financial situation, probing accounting records, internal controls policies, cash holdings and other sensitive financial areas. Publicly-traded corporations are subject to external financial audits on a regular basis, and even privately owned small businesses can be subjected to an external financial audit by the IRS or other government authority. Knowing how to perform a financial audit on your own books can help you to prepare for a possible external audit, keep your accounting system in order and discourage internal fraud and theft.

Step 1

Review the systems put in place to transmit financial information to the accounting department. The first step in the accounting cycle is to gather financial documentation, such as sales receipts, invoices and bank statements, and forward it to the accounting department

for processing. Without timely and reliable information, accounting records can become unreliable themselves, creating discrepancies in a company’s financial records.

Step 2

Look into the company’s record-keeping policies and check to ensure records are being stored properly. Small businesses should keep at least an electronic photocopy of cash register tapes, cancelled checks, invoices and other financial documentation until the end of the current accounting period. Make sure that archived records can be accessed quickly to shed light on any potential issues that arise.

Step 3

Identify and review each element of the company’s accounting system, including individual T-accounts (debits and credits), journal entries, the general ledger and current financial statements. Systematically work through the accounting system to ensure that all necessary accounts are present, that T-accounts are posted to the general ledger in a timely manner and that the system has the ability to correct human errors, such as arithmetic mistakes.

Step 4

Check into the institution’s internal controls policies to gauge the level of protection they provide from corruption. Internal control policies include things like separation of accounting duties between different employees, locked safes for holding pending bank deposits and password-protected accounting software that tracks exactly who does what and when.

Step 5

Compare internal records of cash holdings, income and expenses against external records. Check the company’s stored external records and compare selected transactions against internal records. Compare purchase receipts sent from suppliers for a certain month against internal purchase records, for example, or compare cash register tapes against revenue recorded on the books.

Step 6

Analyze the institution’s internal tax records and official tax returns. Tax records should be kept for seven years to be on the safe side. Browse through the company’s tax receipts from the IRS and compare it against records of tax liabilities and taxes paid in the company’s accounting records. Take a little extra time to review the range of credits and deductions claimed on the most recent tax return, looking for areas of dubious reporting, such as inflated expense numbers.

Academic Audit

The Academic Audit is a faculty-driven model of ongoing self-reflection, collaboration, teamwork and peer feedback. It is based on structured conversations among faculty, stakeholders and peer reviewers all focused on a common goal: to improve quality processes in teaching and learning and thus enhance student success. During the self- study phase of the Academic Audit, the faculty look at the key activities in place that regularly improve the quality of teaching and learning.

The Academic Audit, like more traditional program reviews, is a peer review process including a self-study and a site visit by peers from outside the institution. However, the similarities end there. Unlike the traditional approach to program evaluation, this process emphasizes self-reflection and self-improvement rather than compliance with predetermined standards. The purpose of an academic audit is to encourage departments or programs to evaluate their “education quality processes” – the key faculty activities required to produce, assure, and regularly improve the quality of teaching and learning. An audit asks how faculty approach educational decision-making and how they organize their work, using the resources available to them and working collegially to provide a quality education in the best interests of the discipline and student learning.

Elements of Academic Audit

The audit may include structured interviews, questionnaires, attendance at already scheduled meetings, document review and agenda/minute The detailed programme of activity will reflect the methodology set out by the audit team in the Audit Proposal.
The Review Secretary assists audit team members by advising on appropriate contact persons in the Schools/Units where the audit is to take place. However, audit team members will need to arrange the timings of any visits to those Schools/Units according to their individual
The Team Leader, assisted by the Review Secretary, agrees with members of the audit team which team members will cover particular aspects or For avoidance of doubt, the Review Secretary will circulate a note of the allocation of the respective tasks to all team members.
The Team Leader, again assisted by the Review Secretary, agrees with members of the audit team which team members will draft which parts of the audit Again the Review Secretary will circulate that allocation in a note to all team members.

Upon completion of the audit, the audit team agrees a draft report.

The Team Leader, assisted by the Review Secretary edits the draft audit report. He/she may also consult the AAGC member of the team on editing matters. At this stage of the process the Team Leader is likely to engage the rest of the audit team in an interactive exchange of electronic drafts to arrive at a draft which reflects the consensus view of all the audit
This draft is then sent to the Head of School/Unit where the audit took place, and other staff as appropriate, primarily for factual correction. Only where it is clearly demonstrated that an error of fact has incorrectly influenced the audit team’s findings will the audit team redraft a report to the extent that its findings are Again it is for the Team Leader, with assistance and advice, further to edit the report.
The audit team’s report, as amended if necessary in response to factual correction, is then considered by the Chair of AAGC who may consult with the AAGC member of the audit team, other members of AAGC and Governance Services Unit, before determining:
- which member of Executive should have overview of a draft management response and should present that response to Executive

with advice from that Executive member, which University officer(s) should draft a management response, under the overview of and for the initial approval of that Executive member, for presentation by that Executive member to Executive .

As the key executive managers in the University, Executive have the authority to commit staffing and other resources to ensure that recommendations in an audit report are Executive members also have a commitment to and expertise in the assurance of academic standards and quality and their enhancement. Executive therefore consider the audit report and a draft management response, as presented by the Executive member so requested by the Chair of AAGC, for approval.
After receipt of the management response, AAGC approves an action plan, drafted by officers within GSU setting out the actions required to implement recommendations within an audit report. The action plan identifies the locus of responsibility for specific actions and sets out a timescale for those actions. The timescale will depend upon the particular topic audited but AAGC adopts a default position of expected completion of actions within twelve

Purpose of the Academic Audit:

The objective of academic audit is to evaluate the performance of the institution and to identify the issues that are to be attended in order to improve the quality of teaching and Research. The following are the major objectives of academic audit:

To understand the existing system and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the Departments and Administrative Units and to suggest the methods for improvement and for overcoming the weaknesses while teaching, learning and evaluation, student support and progression.
To ascertain whether the Departments/centers are functioning efficiently and effectively with proven records of capacity building, research projects and publications and extension over a period of time or
To identify the bottlenecks in the existing administrative mechanisms and to identify the opportunities for academic reforms, administrative reforms and examination reforms for a long term progression with excellence and to face the challenges of Internationalization in higher
To evaluate the optimum utilization of financial and other resources, issues concerning with leadership and organization, functional autonomy and financial
To suggest the methods of improvement for maintaining quality in higher

The Peer Review

Auditors are volunteers (primarily faculty) who receive training on education quality processes and audit
Audit teams (2-4 members) may come from any public and private institutions including outside higher education as long as each auditor participates in a formal training
All departments are given the opportunity to nominate up to two peers for service on the academic auditor review team.

Because the auditors focus on quality processes, they do not have to come from the academic discipline of the department being audited though TBR strives to have at least one faculty from the discipline or a closely aligned discipline on each auditor
Audit visits are typically one
Auditors meet with departmental leadership, faculty, students and other
Auditors ask questions similar to the self-study questions cited
Auditors write a report:
- Highlighting examples of exemplary practice,
- Noting areas for improvement,
- Evaluating a department’s approach to educational quality practices,
- If the program is being evaluated for performance funding purposes, the report specifically addresses any “Not Met” cited on the performance funding summary

Principles of the Academic Audit:

While there is no “hidden agenda” and no “right way” to approach the Academic Audit process, the Academic Audit openly advocates the following underlying quality principles as foundations of good educational practice.

Define quality in terms of outcomes
- Learning outcomes should pertain to what is or will become important for the department’s
- Student learning, not teaching per se, is what ultimately
Focus on process
- Departments should analyze how teachers teach, how students learn, and how to best approach learning
- Departments should study their discipline’s literature and collect data on what works well and what doesn’t.
- Experimentation with active learning should be encouraged. Faculty should be encouraged to share and adopt their colleague’s successful teaching
Work Collaboratively
- Teamwork and consensus lead to total faculty ownership of and responsibility for all aspects of the curriculum and make everyone accountable for the success of students.
- Dialogue and collaboration should be encouraged over territoriality and the “lone wolf”
Base Decisions on Evidence
- Departments should collect data to find out what students need and how students
- Data should be analyzed and findings incorporated in the design of curricula, learning processes, and assessment

Strive for Coherence
- Courses should build upon one another to provide necessary breadth and
- Assessment should be aligned with learning

Learn from Best Practice
- Faculty should seek out good practices in comparable departments and institutions and adapt the best to their own
- Faculty should share best practices and help “raise the bar” for their

Make Continuous Improvement a Priority
- Departments should continually and consciously strive to improve teaching and learning.

The Format of the Audit Report

Audit reports have a standard format comprising:

Title of the
Membership of the audit
Terms of Reference for the particular
The methodology of the particular
A description of the current policies, procedures and arrangements for the topic This should preferably be a brief factual synopsis
A risk assessment outlining why the policies, procedures and arrangements underpinning the topic audited require to be quality assured e.g what detriment might the University suffer if the current policies, procedures and arrangements failed?
The findings of the audit. These are principally of two types:
- Is there compliance with the current policies, procedures and arrangements for the topic audited?
- Could the current policies, procedures and arrangements for the topic audited be enhanced and be made more fit for purpose? In particular, the audit team may wish to promote across the school/university good practice identified in the Schools/Units where the audit took

Administrative Evaluation

At the highest levels of administration, administrators typically do not have anyone to evaluate them. Evaluations are important in the development of effective school leaders and resulting benefits to schools. There has been some debate whether a predefined evaluation process should be used or one that is tailored to individual schools boards.

It’s important to include the administrator in the evaluation process.

Self-evaluations are insightful and foster self-reflection. To ensure an objective and fair evaluation, it’s important that criteria are defined before the evaluation process is underway. Knowing how such criteria should be objectively measured is important for results to be impartial. As well, criteria should be based on achievements and goals for the school board, and not personality characteristics.

Tailor the evaluation to fit the needs of the school. Each school board has different attainable goals and the evaluation criteria should reflect this. The evaluation process is not meant to be a criticism of administrator behavior, but an opportunity for improvement. Evaluations should be ongoing and frequent to allow time for improvement. To ensure that the evaluation process is viewed as a positive, the administrator should be given an opportunity to respond the evaluation. As well, all language in the review should be presented in a helpful and constructive manner.

Obtaining an objective methodology is easier by using multiple measures (e.g., student achievement, peer review, observation etc.) and multiple raters.

The evaluation system should include:

a focus on school improvement
be performance based
include the evaluated individual’s input
be agreed upon by involved stakeholders
be relevant to the administrator’s functions and tasks
be in line with local expectations and goals
promote communications and collaboration among all administrators – promote growth and leadership clearly define assessment procedures – ensure frequency of assessment and feedback
hold administrators accountable and reward effective leaders

Self-Assessment Questions

1 What is performance appraisal? What different techniques are used in different scenarios?

2 How academic audit is important and what are the ways to conduct it?

Activity

1) Imagine a situation where you are an auditor and assign a duty to audit an educational institute. Keeping in mind the key points of this unit, you have to write an audit report. Clearly mention the elements and components of academic as well as financial audit.

Recommended Readings

Dill, D. (2000). Designing Academic Audit: Lessons Learned in Europe and Asia.

Quality in Higher Education, 6, 187.

Daley, D. M. (1992). Performance Appraisal in the Public Sector-Techniques and Applications. Greenwood Publishing Group. USA.

Unit–5

APPROACHES OF SUPERVISON

Compiled by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Reviewed by: Hamid Ali Nadeem

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………… 57

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………… 57

Authoritarian……………………………………………………………………………………. 59
Laissez Faire…………………………………………………………………………………….. 63
Synergistic……………………………………………………………………………………….. 65
Developmental approach……………………………………………………………………. 67
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 68
Recommended Readings……………………………………………………………………. 68

INTRODUCTION

This unit deals with the approaches of supervision from authoritarian teachers to laissez faire style of teaching/supervision by taking into account all type of learning and supervisory technique. Moreover a detailed overview of synergy and developmental approach has also been presented in order to take into account of all approaches of supervision and learning.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the successful student is expected to:

To understand the difference between all the approaches of supervision and
Have a clear view point about the best type of approach, whether its authoritarian, laissez fair or
Clearly differentiate between all approaches of development including Cognitive, Physical, Moral Development, Ego Development, Faith Development, Emotional and Social Development and Self Direction.

The process of supervision can take on one or a combination of styles, and one particular style may not be appropriate for every supervisory situation. It is important that a supervisor is aware of his or her predominate approach to supervision so that the style may be adapted as the situation or the staff member requires. Winston and Creamer (1994) provide an instrument to identify supervisory approaches. The four approaches included in the instrument are:

Authoritarian – based on the belief that staff members require constant attention
Laissez Faire – based on the desire to allow staff members freedom in accomplishing job responsibilities
Companionable – based on a friendship-like relationship
Synergistic – a cooperative effort between the supervisor and the staff member

Supervision should concentrate on four areas of staff competence:

Knowledge and Information – Staff members must understand how to effectively perform the duties of their job. This includes, but is not limited to understanding college student development theory, current laws and other legal parameters of practice, standards of professional practices, ethical standards, and institutional rules and policies.

Work-related skills – Supervisors must ensure that staff members stay current on developing trends within the field of student development and that they are trained in a wide range of skills related to their job description, such as interpersonal communication, goal setting, and computer skills. For student affairs professionals to remain effective, these skills have to be refreshed regularly. This is especially true for skills that are not used on a regular basis. Supervisors must also provide the means for staff members to develop and acquire new skills.

Personal Skills – The synergistic style emphasizes a holistic approach to supervision. Just as attention must be paid to develop staff member’s work-related skills, so too must personal skills be developed. To function successfully as professional, individuals must acquire skills in areas such as time management, anger control, diet and exercise, and retirement planning.

Attitudes – Supervisors must maintain a positive attitude among their staff members. Positive attitudes can motivate individuals to apply knowledge or skills to strive toward personal, unit, and division goals. Student affairs professionals are involved in a people business. Therefore, their attitude toward people, especially students, must be appropriate. Whether a staff member approaches tasks with an attitude of enthusiasm or sarcasm often determines that staff member’s success.

An important responsibility of supervision is career development of staff. Supervisors should provide assistance to staff as they pursue work that is meaningful and personally satisfying. This manual suggests using Schein’s Model of Career Anchors (Table 1) to help clarify a person’s occupational self-concept. If a supervisor can understand a staff member’s career anchors, it may be much easier to help that person climb the career ladder and find work assignments that are congruent with their interests and abilities.

Authoritarian

The school’s contributions to authoritarian orientations cannot be overlooked or in some instances overstated, even if its function is often more one of reinforcement than creation. While many youngsters experience authoritarianism prior to entering school, the school nonetheless introduces different forms and adds a social sanction to previous experiences. One’s obligation to comply with the dictates of attendance requires no understanding, not unlike saying the pledge to the flag as a first grader. The important thing is to conform to the mandate. This is not to suggest that a strong rationale for compulsory attendance cannot exist; rather it is to underline the ways in which expectations for compliance begin early and are, in the main, beyond discussion or question from the learner’s vantage point. The pattern of having little say or choice in school is one that continues for an entire education.

The authoritarian teacher places firm limits and controls on the students. Students will often have assigned seats for the entire term. The desks are usually in straight rows and there are no deviations. Students must be in their seats at the beginning of class and they frequently remain there throughout the period. This teacher rarely gives hall passes or recognizes excused absences. Often, it is quiet. Students know they should not interrupt the teacher. Since verbal exchange and discussion are discouraged, the authoritarian’s students do not have the opportunity to learn and/or practice communication skills. This teacher prefers vigorous discipline and expects swift obedience. Failure to obey the teacher usually results in detention or a trip to the principal’s office. In this classroom, students need to follow directions and not ask why.

The authoritarian values order for order’s sake. In classrooms order is generally claimed as a condition for pursuing the intellectual development of the young. But if this means having ownership over one’s mind and moving in the direction of becoming an independent being, then schools are obligated to provide learning settings and experiences which make these desired ends possible and visible. The misplaced focus of the ‘open’ movement of the 70’s helped bring to light the understanding that openness is first and foremost an intellectual notion rather than a problem of school architecture. In a reaction against the often controlling, boring, and authoritarian nature of schools, the open concept became associated with unleashing the young by removing structural barriers seen as too restraining. The rearrangement of desks and the absence of walls may speak to a dimension of openness, but it is entirely possible to have a traditional setting with desks in rows that is nonetheless genuinely intellectually open as well as intellectually opening in its effects. But order in the classroom, while offered as a prerequisite to learning, is too often for the benefit of the teacher and the system. There is a constant danger in schools that authority will degenerate into authoritarianism, because a good portion of those attracted to teaching and school administration consciously or (more commonly) unconsciously wish to exercise authority in order to satisfy some unfulfilled need within themselves.

It brings to mind the story of the high school principal showing his school to parents newly arrived in town. As they approached a long corridor of classrooms, at the far end

sounds of students could be heard emanating into the hallway. Somewhat irritated the principal excused himself to inspect the situation and find out what was happening in the classroom. But to reach the room that displayed signs of life, he had to pass thirteen others from which not a peep could be heard. The likelihood is far less that quiet classrooms will be questioned for what may or may not be occurring in them than classrooms that depart from the desired institutional norm of tranquility.

Silence is rarely a vehicle for opening young minds. Students are ‘put in their place’ intellectually in part because they are put in their place behaviorally. This grows from the assumption previously cited that a certain orderliness is necessary for learning to occur. While this makes perfect sense in a particular context, it reflects a series of subsidiary assumptions among which include learning as an essentially passive act, learning equates with knowledge acquisition and transfer, and sounds are disruptive to learning unless the sounds are voices of experts and authority. Further, achieving order through repression presents no moral dilemma to the authoritarian. The often held view that children are evil (original sin) or are the enemy removes any moral restraints to their intellectual mistreatment. To truly own one’s thoughts requires the intellectual freedom to interrogate one’s experiences and this is not possible in settings characterized by distrust of those who are to be intellectually empowered. The roots of modern education are considerably connected to notions of the child as naturally evil who can be saved by control, denial, and authority. It is this view of the young which explains why education has been regarded as a moral discipline. Avoidance of anything smacking of authority is at the heart of the age old child centered versus subject centered debate. The avoidance of imposition in the name of freedom frames the issue incorrectly at the outset.

Freedom was first and foremost an intellectual consideration rather than the sheer absence of external authority. Freedom was something to be achieved, an accomplishment of the educational process. Implicit is the belief that much of what constituted the traditional curriculum, albeit in differing forms and methods, was necessary along the path to the intellectual freedom. Freedom was not achieved by merely discarding existing forms of external authority. Embedded in this realization is the obligation of schools to actively promote intellectual independence in democratic settings. There is a danger in relativizing authority when opposing authoritarianism that in itself may invite a collapse into authoritarianism: It is not that alternative free schools promote authoritarianism; it is more a question whether values of freedom, equality, and individual centeredness, when made the starting point of the educational process, are allowed to overpower curricular and pedagogical practices that develop the intellectual discipline necessary for resisting authoritarianism in its more modern forms.

Since the world is constantly changing and at a very rapid rate, no child should be educated for any fixed end. Instead schools have to educate so as to give the learner all that is necessary both to adapt to change and have power to shape and give direction to those changes.

The purpose in underlining the point that authority and control cannot be expunged from social settings is to eliminate the implication that by somehow obliterating any form of authority, ala Summer hill, a Utopia of freedom will instantly appear. It is not the absence of controls or authority that gives us freedom. In the school environment it is how the sources of authority are defined, to what ends the group aspires, what means are employed to establish authority and desired ends, and finally who has a voice and role in governing all of it. It is not a question of whether a social system will organize itself but one of who participates in the construction of that system and vision—since they also then participate in any change in vision that may be desired—and to what extent that vision is characterized as democratic. It is almost axiomatic to assert that students are essentially silent in their educational roles. They subsist in a system where the transmission of subject content into their waiting containers remains the dominant educational form. Recent trends obligate students to give performances as evidence they acquired ascribed knowledge and skills. The ‘outcomes based’ approaches or the more current term ‘results oriented’ education are further examples of the students’ alienated position in the system since these newer schemes are imposed by bureaucrats residing at great distances from where youngsters experience their daily tutelage. There is no need to quibble about the efficacy of this or that educational approach. From the student’s perch they all have certain elements in common: someone else decided these were good educational approaches, important pieces of knowledge, vital subjects of study, etc. In each instance the student is to once again demonstrate the capacity to comply with the mandates or suffer the institutional consequences. The system appropriates the language of individualized instruction yet contemporary reforms are driven primarily from state departments of education acting as extensions of legislatures desperate to make the system more economically efficient and productive. The result is a school program devised without any knowledge of any single student yet is termed individualized education. A more apt description is individually paced, but paced toward the same ends and outcomes for all. Missing are ends which have democratic experiences at the center.

There are occasional references to citizenship education along with the dispositions required of the good citizen. But this is a view of citizenship that is primarily passive and lacks an articulated concept of the active, participatory citizen and citizenry. Even the most repressive political systems have expectations of good citizenship. To be realized democratic learning must be something more than an academic exercise, important as that may be. There must be experiences that are truly democratic in their character and they in turn must permeate the school culture. If absent the young will be prone to confuse democracy with simply exercising the right to vote—something enjoyed by citizens under Hitler, Stalin and Mussolini but not to be confused with democratic citizenship. This illustrates how far today’s school encounters are from what Dewey desired. To a large extent the system has simply become more efficient and top heavy in carrying out what Dewey saw as a major problem to begin with, namely that the traditional school imposed its agenda on the young and in the process missed important educational and democratic opportunities

The child learns that the teacher is the authoritative person in the classroom, but that she is subordinate to the principal. Thus the structure of society can be learned through understanding the hierarchy of power within the structure of the school. Students are commonly referred to as a “valuable resource” or “our nation’s most precious possession.” Typically these are offered in connection with what the adult community is expecting from the next generation in terms of solving problems created by their predecessors. They are also termed the “product” in the educational vernacular which reflects both the industrial vocabulary that permeates education (as a further reflection of the industrial paradigm embedded in the educational system as well as the notion that there are waiting consumers of this resource in the global economy. Students are expected to see themselves as means to others’ ends. As students internalize the purposes of their education, they readily offer ’employment’ as the reason they are in school, including the university level.

When the view of their own role and station is so completely tied to productivity outside school, they convey the unexamined assumptions that have been woven into their education. To the extent they understand things in terms of the now ubiquitous “global market place,” being a means to an end does not appear on most of their radars. And why should it? How has their education suggested otherwise? People in modern institutions are conditioned to accept being an object to others and a subject to themselves. The very processes we use to inscribe our self to ourselves put us at the disposition of others.

The task of creating rational, autonomous persons falls initially to pedagogical institutions. Their goal is to produce young bodies and minds that are self- governing; failing that, they try to make their graduates governable. This is reflected in the differing treatment different categories of students receive.

Those expected to belong to the managing class have opportunities to think in creative and other ways, though they represent a very small portion of students. It can be argued that in far too many places educational institutions move immediately to the task of making the future citizenry governable. Not only do students have little or no say in the life of the school, they have next to none in their own academic experience.

Further, the nature of the cognitive encounter is marked by varying degrees of authoritarianism. Knowledge comes in preshaped forms absent any suggestion that hosts of epistemological assumptions are present.

Students must absorb the curriculum which is presented in an almost fixed and final form. Lost are the debates which attend so much of what is handed to students as complete, homogenized, and pasteurized. Since knowledge is something that filters down through various layers of expertise until it reaches the students, it implicitly carries an authoritarian dimension but more disturbingly, inculcates students to the belief that answers and meaning are to be found only from those with expertise. Discovering answers for oneself or developing the capacity to generate meaning from learning encounters is foreign to the experience. The means of the encounter are predominantly

teacher centered, with the teacher presumed to be an authoritative source. Students do not develop the dispositions to question teachers and texts, the foremost authorities on intellectual matters.

Too often teachers themselves do not question the texts which in turn constitute the essence of the curriculum. This hierarchy of expertise places students at the bottom. Knowing little, they become accustomed to not being entitled to examine the content of their schooling. Though there are examples which counter this general pattern, they are rare.

It should be evident that there is a connection, and a strong one, between the lessons of youth which socialize them into patterns of passivity and obedience on one hand and a tendency toward rapid erosion of democratic possibilities on the other. When those in authority are always right, when they have the power to enforce their claim of right, there becomes little need for the young to rack their brains to ask whether what is demanded of them is right or wrong, good or bad. As preparation for adult living, they will be at the mercy of authorities for better or worse. Saying no will always seem too threatening.

Laissez Faire

Since the authoritative teacher places limits and controls on the students but simultaneously encourages independence. This teacher often explains the reasons behind the rules and decisions. If a student is disruptive, the teacher offers a polite, but firm, reprimand. This teacher sometimes metes out discipline, but only after careful consideration of the circumstances.

The authoritative teacher is also open to considerable verbal interaction, including critical debates. The students know that they can interrupt the teacher if they have a relevant question or comment.

This environment offers students the opportunity to learn and practice communication skills. Whereas, the indifferent teacher is not very involved in the classroom. This teacher places few demands, if any, on the students and appears generally uninterested. The indifferent teacher just doesn’t want to impose on the students and often feels that class preparation is not worth the effort. Things like field trips and special projects are out of the question.

This teacher simply won’t take the necessary preparation time and may use the same materials, year after year. Also, classroom discipline is lacking.

This teacher may lack the skills, confidence, or courage to discipline students. However, the laissez-faire teacher places few demand or controls on the students. “Do your own thing” describes this classroom.

This teacher accepts the students’ impulses and actions and is less likely to monitor their behaviour. The teacher strives not to hurt the students’ feelings and has difficulty saying

no or enforcing rules. If a student disrupts the class, the teacher may assume that the student is not getting enough attention.

When a student interrupts a lecture, the teacher accepts the interruption with the belief that the student must surely have something valuable to add. When discipline is offered, it is likely to be inconsistent.

In order to understand the laissez faire decision making, we need to have an idea about authoritarian decision making first.

Leaders who use authoritarian decision-making, make all the major group decisions and demand compliance from the group members. Authoritarian leaders typically make decisions on their own and tell other group members what to do and how to do it. Authoritarian leadership can be beneficial when a decision needs to be made quickly or when a project or situation is particularly stressful. While authoritarian leadership can be beneficial at times, it is often the case that it’s more problematic. This type of decision- making is easily abused, and authoritarian leaders are often viewed as bossy and controlling. Because authoritarian leaders make decisions without consulting the group, many group members may resent the leader because they are unable to contribute ideas. Whereas in French laissez-faire loosely translated means ‘to leave alone’. Therefore, leaders who use laissez-faire decision-making let the groups make their own decisions. They are only minimally involved, basically sitting back and letting the group function by its own. Laissez-faire is usually the least effective style of leadership decision-making.

Characteristics of Laissez-Faire Supervision

Laissez-faire supervision is characterized by:

Very little guidance from leaders
Complete freedom for followers to make decisions
Leaders provide the tools and resources needed
Group members are expected to solve problems on their own
Power is handed over to followers, yet leaders still take responsibility for the groups decisions and actions

Benefits of Laissez-Faire Supervision:

Like other supervision approaches, the declarative style has both a number of benefits and shortcomings. It can be effective in situations where group members are highly skilled, motivated and capable of working on their own. Since these group members are experts and have the knowledge and skills to work independently, they are capable of accomplishing tasks with very little guidance.

The delegative style can be particularly effective in situations where group members are actually more knowledgeable than the group’s leader/supervisor. Because team members are the experts in a particular area, the laissez-faire style allows them to demonstrate their deep knowledge and skill surrounding that particular subject.

This autonomy can be freeing to some group members and help them feel more satisfied with their work. The laissez-faire style can be used in situations where followers have a high-level of passion and intrinsic motivation for their work.

While the conventional term for this style is ‘laissez-faire’ and implies a completely hands-off approach, many leaders still remain open and available to group members for consultation and feedback.

Downsides of Laissez-Faire Supervision

Laissez-faire supervision is not ideal in situations where group members lack the knowledge or experience they need to complete tasks and make decisions. Some people are not good at setting their own deadlines, managing their own projects and solving problems on their own. In such situations, projects can go off-track and deadlines can be missed when team members do not get enough guidance or feedback from leaders.

In some situations, the laissez-faire style leads to poorly defined roles within the group. Since team members receive little to no guidance, they might not really be sure about their role within the group and what they are supposed to be doing with their time.

Laissez-faire supervisors are often seen as uninvolved and withdrawn, which can lead to a lack of cohesiveness within the group. Since they seems unconcerned with what is happening, students sometimes pick up on this and express less care and concern for the project. Some might even take advantage of this style as a way to avoid personal responsibility for the group’s failures.

If group members are unfamiliar with the task or the process needed to accomplish the task, supervisors are better off taking a more hands-on approach. Eventually, as followers acquire more expertise, leaders might then switch back to a more delegative approach that gives group members more freedom to work independently.

5.3. Synergistic Supervision

Synergistic supervision has been described as having the greatest utility for working with student affairs professionals. Its cooperative nature allows joint effects to exceed the combination of individual efforts. Important characteristics of synergistic supervision include:

Dual Focus – Staff members need to feel that they have a significant influence on selecting and defining the goals of the unit and in devising strategies to accomplish them. If staff members perceive goals as being imposed on them, they may not make a personal investment in trying to achieve the goals of the unit.

Joint Effort – Supervision is not something done to staff but rather a cooperative activity in which each party has an important contribution to make. Plans for accomplishing tasks such as determining unit priorities, scheduling and distributing work and coordinating the

efforts of the division are worked out jointly between the supervisor and the staff member.

Two-way Communication – In the synergistic model of staffing practices, supervision is dependent upon a high level of trust between staff members and supervisors. Staff members must be willing to allow supervisors to learn personal information about them. Staff members must also feel free to give their supervisors honest, direct feedback. Communication is key in developing this trust.

Synergistic supervision can be defined as a cooperative effort between the supervisor and supervisee with a focus on joint-effort, two-way communication, and competency and goals (for the betterment of the organization and individual).Emergent Themes Compared with Characteristics of Synergistic Supervision is as follows:

Supervisor Accessibility (Helping Process)
Meaningful Interaction with Supervisor (Cooperative Effort)
Utilization of Formal Evaluations (Focus on Competence / Goals)
Providing Unique Supervision (Joint Effort / Two-way Communication)
Providing Professional Development Opportunities

The learning-teaching synergy happens when teachers are thinking, observing, and focusing in all sorts of ways on learning—when we are constantly asking, “What’s going to help students learn this?” This focus on learning and attempts to understand how it’s happening for students drives decision-making about teaching. It is what determines whether students will work in groups, whether they need to write or speak answers, whether their understanding of a concept should be tested, and on and on. Teachers become learners of learning. We have always been learners of content, but now in every class we seek to better understand the relationship between the learning experiences of students and the instructional approaches we are using.

The teaching-learning synergy happens when students are focused on learning—what they are learning (the content and skills of the course) and how they are learning it. Both are important. Students need to develop an understanding of themselves as learners. The synergy happens when students are learning from and with others. They are learning from the teacher who has relevant experiences and expertise. They are also learning from classmates who offer explanations that make sense to novice learners and use examples that beginners find meaningful. When classmates act as teachers, their confidence grows, as does the confidence of those learning from them. Through this synergy students discover that they can figure things out for themselves.

The synergy happens when teachers are open to learning from students. Sometimes (not all the time) a student asks a question, offers an example, or shares an insight and the teacher learns something new about the content. More often students are instructing the teacher about learning—what content causes them confusion, what examples aren’t meaningful, and what assignments don’t generate much engagement. On the other side,

they’re also able to help us understand the things that inspire them to learn, and the tactics that help them to do so.

Synergy Education Solution works directly with educators, professional and parent organizations, and publishers to improve students’ learning and achievement in our nations’ schools. Synergy offers services that focus on the integration of evidence-based assessment and instructional programs, professional development for teachers and educational leaders, and strategies for the implementation of effective programs. Synergy works closely with educational leaders at state and federal levels in developing initiatives and policies that are informed by current research and assists institutions of higher education in building graduate programs that enhance the teaching graduate programs that in turn enhance the teaching effectiveness and leadership abilities of educational professionals.

Developmental Approach

A developmental approach to teaching and learning is simply put catering to the needs of the individual learner through an individualized program that works with their development long a range of measures:

Cognitive – their brain readiness for mastery of existing concepts and introduction to new Australian Curriculum challenges
Physical – the physical gross and fine motor skills needed for a range of learning and social skills
Moral Development – developing empathy and compassion
Ego Development – understanding of the self in the world (e.g. time, space, self- reflection)
Faith Development – belief in how their world is controlled (Ghosts and monsters or logical reasoning)
Emotional and Social Development – self-awareness and self-management of emotions and working with others
Self-Direction – understanding of learning needs and ways of working (learning styles and organizational skills)

Development cannot be forced or ignored. If we try and work more than one level of development beyond where the child is at it will just sound like nonsense and they won’t understand. If we try to push them to the next level they will keep returning to the previous one whenever they are stressed.

You cannot skip a level, you need to be in it and explore it and find out that there are better ways to think and do that you can see other’s do. When your level stops working you move to the next one. Experiential learning is key to the process. So we look at the individual child’s readiness to identify where they need to be within the BIS cultural expectations for moral development and community participation and where they need to be to fit societal expectations of the Australia Curriculum.

This Means in Practice:

We don’t race children through when they are not ready – we wait and support them but always show them the next level for them to aspire
We work with them to develop the areas they need to and harness those that they excel within, giving them time to master skills
We learn to understand them as they will have the same teacher for much of their schooling who gets to understand their idiosyncrasies and learns how to motivate and extend them
We find out about your learning preferences and use them actively in your learning program
We put in limits when they need it and take them away when they need to stretch their wings and fly
We listen to their body patterns and physical needs, allowing them to eat when hungry and go to the toilet whenever they need
We have four basic school rules to follow and know that depending on your age, developmental level and understanding those rules will need different explanations and consequences

Self-Assessment Questions

1 What is the difference between Laissez faire and authoritarian Supervision? Out of two which is beneficial for an academic environment?

2 There is a range of measures of developmental approach e.g., Cognitive, Physical, Moral Development, Ego Development, Faith Development, Emotional and Social Development. And Self-direction. Explain each measure in detail and give examples from educational sector.

Recommended Readings

Schwartz. (1984). Strategies for Staff Development: Personal and Professional Education in the 21^st Century. New Directions for Student Services.

Winston, R. B., Jr., & Creamer, D. G. (1998). Staff Supervision and Professional Development: An Integrated Approach. In W. A.

Hoerr, T. R (2005). The Art of School Leadership. Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, USA.

Glickman, Carl D., Gordon, Stephen P., Ross-Gordon, Jovita M. (2001). Supervision and Instructional Leadership: A Developmental Approach. Sixth Edition. Allyn & Bacon/Longman Publishing.

Unit–6

FUNCTIONS OF SUPERVISION

Compiled by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Reviewed by: Hamid Ali Nadeem

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………… 71

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………… 71

Articulating and Achieving the Missions and Needs……………………………….. 74
Monitoring and Evaluation…………………………………………………………………. 78
Support and Advise…………………………………………………………………………… 79
Liaison…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 91
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 95
Suggested Readings…………………………………………………………………………… 96

INTRODUCTION

The function and role of supervisors do vary considerably between countries according to the specific category of supervisor being considered and the degree of precision of the tasks being prescribed. There is a list of functions assigned to supervisory officers in general all countries. This unit describes these core functions of supervisors by throwing a detailed light on articulating and achieving the missions and needs, Monitoring and Evaluation, Support and Advise, Liaison.

OBJECTIVES

It is believed that by the end of this unit, the successful student will be able to:

Understand the roles and functions of
Gain a sound grasp of the roles supervision services play, the conflicts these entail, and, as a result, the aims of recent
Analyze the load of responsibilities, dispersion of tasks; and how it bear relationship to the core functions of a
Assess how the supervise, liaise and hold conferences and other

Supervision in the workplace has become a fundamentally important exercise for both workers and clients. This article explores and discusses key messages of the supervision. It provides insights and orientation about the functions of supervision and characteristics of a good supervisor in human services. The article is a good resource for those who want to learn about supervision and those who want to advance their supervision practices.

Supervision has been around since 1970s as a form of counselling service to clients. After 1970s it began to move away from counselling model to more educational process which aims to assist workers to reflect on the processes of their practice when dealing with clients or vulnerable victims. In other words, supervision has a history of changing focus from the person doing the work to the work itself. This has come as a result of social roles and developmental frameworks in community services (Carroll, 2007). At present, supervision is about supporting, getting work results to meet administrative needs and being educational to ensure that supervisees are growing professionally in their careers.

The usual expectation from a supervisor is that he or she must have skills in humanity; in other words they must have good people skills. Some supervisors are good at the technical skills of their job but are less able use their human skills which help in building relationships, loyalty and motivations for supervisees to succeed in their profession. In my past experiences, I had the opportunity to supervise supervisees. I was also supervised by some supervisors that had different experiences based on their human skills, training and understanding of supervision in human services.

Having regular supervision with a qualified practitioner is extremely vital for professional development and ethical practicing for community services workers. Supervision has become more important in the community services sector. Yet, it is sad to see some supervisors with a less than adequate understanding of what supervision is. These kinds of supervisors may be people with less experience in community services or they have not studied humanity subjects to prepare them for the supervision role. On other side of a coin, some workers/supervisees have less or no understanding of the supervision. Full time workers should at least have one hour supervision with their team leader or manager every fortnight. The one hour session is used for reflection and feedback about work performance.

Supervision is about nurturing employees and not about intimidating, challenging, or over powering them. It is about sharing knowledge, skills, work expectations as well as being committed to make supervisees successful in their roles rather than waiting for them to make a mistake. Supervisors need to have clear thinking and a specific idea of how one can support the individuals who work for you and the organisation. It is the same as if you have a specific plan to maintain a service or process. Good supervision requires a road map to get people to where they want to go with their roles and careers (Wenger, 2009).

Theory and Function of Supervision

Supervision is all about reflecting on your role, the opportunity to grow professional and remain competent in your role as well as keeping a professional relationship with

supervisor and team. Reflection is a process whereby a person reflects on what he/she brings to an interaction and how this may impact on how he/she views and manages that interaction. Supervision promotes a clear understanding of capacity building of individuals and provides leadership and strategic thinking in order to implement work related tasks. Understanding function, role and authority of the position held involves openness, particularly open interaction and honest communication (Borders, 2001). Therefore, supervision should:

Improve the quality of decision-making and
Enable effective line management and organisational
Identify and address issues related to caseloads and workload
Help to identify and achieve personal learning, career and development

These functions are reinforced by the Alfred Kadushin’s theory and model of supervision. There are many theories written about supervision practice that are not mentioned in this article. The writer encourages people take time to visit and read many theories in social work, social psychology and counseling that discusses supervision. Alfred Kadushin argues supervision in social work is useful and helpful in many ways. His argument goes back to earlier theories such as John Dawson (1926) who stated the functions of supervision in the following terms:

Administrative: the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work, co- ordination of practice with policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient and smooth-running office;
Educational: the educational development of each individual worker on the staff in a manner calculated to evoke her fully to realise her possibilities of usefulness; and
Supportive: the maintenance of harmonious working relationships, the cultivation of esprit de corps (morale of the group or team spirit).

Supporting workers to learn and grow professionally is one of the key roles of a manager within an organization. Some theories argue that managers must have a concern for both performance and learning of workers (Smith, 2012). The essentially managerial aspects of a managers’ work are their responsibility for monitoring and improving the work of others; and their managerial effectiveness is determined by their capacity to improve the work of others. If managers are not able to make this contribution, then what value are they adding? The ultimate justification of managers’ existence is the improvement of the work of their subordinates. If managers fail in this way they fail as managers (Smith, 2012).

Characteristics of Supervisors

What are the characteristics of a good supervisor? The answer will be somehow the same to answers given by some academics and practitioners who write up supervision theory. A good supervisor seems to have many of the same qualities of good teachers and good practitioners. They are empathic, genuine, open, and flexible. They respect their supervisees as persons and as developing professionals, and are sensitive to individual differences such as gender, race, ethnicity, skin colour and age of supervisees. They

appear to be clam, comfortable with strategic thinking, evaluative and function intrinsically in the supervisor role, giving clear and frequent indications of their evaluation of the counsellor’s performance. Good supervisors must really enjoy supervision, remain committed to helping the supervisee grow, and show commitment during supervision as well as being prepared for the supervision session. Supervisors show high levels of conceptual functioning, have a clear sense of their own strengths and limitations as a supervisor, and can identify how their personal traits and interpersonal style may affect the conduct of supervision. Finally, good supervisors have a sense of humor which helps both the supervisor and supervisee get through rough spots in their work together and achieve a healthy perspective on their work. Such personal traits and relationship factors are considered as significant as technical prowess in supervision (Borders, 2001).

Supervisors are expected to develop relationships and environments that enable their supervisees to work together and respond to change. Both the supervisor and supervisee must be committed to their performance, common goals, and willingness to share knowledge and experiences in a respectful manner (Smith, 2012). In terms of professional characteristics, roles and skills, good supervisors are knowledgeable and competent practitioners and supervisors. They have extensive training and wide experience in the field, which have helped them achieve a broad perspective of the work. They can effectively employ a variety of supervision interventions, and can deliberately choose from these interventions based on their assessment of a supervisee’s learning needs, learning style, and personal characteristics. They seek ongoing growth in counselling and supervision through continuing education activities, self-evaluation, and feedback from supervisees, clients, other supervisors, and colleagues (Carroll, 2007).

Good supervisors also have the professional skills of good teachers (e.g., applying learning theory, developing sequential short-term goals, evaluating interventions and supervisee learning) and they are good consultants (e.g., objectively assessing problem situation, providing alternative interventions and/or conceptualisations of a problem or client, facilitating supervisee brainstorming of alternatives, collaboratively developing strategies for supervisee and client growth). In fact, good supervisors are able to function effectively in the roles of teacher, practitioner, and consultant, making informed choices about which role to employ at any given time with a particular supervisee (Borders, 2001).

Articulating and Achieving the Missions and Needs

Supervision in the educational institute or the workplace has become a fundamentally important exercise for both students as well as workers/clients. This section explores and discusses key messages of the supervision. It provides insights and orientation about the functions of supervision and characteristics of a good supervisor in human services. This section is a good resource for those who want to learn about supervision and those who want to advance their supervision practices.

Supervision has been around since 1970s, as a form of counselling service to clients. After 1970s it began to move away from counselling model to more educational process which aims to assist workers to reflect on the processes of their practice when dealing with clients or vulnerable victims. In other words, supervision has a history of changing focus from the person doing the work to the work itself. This has come as a result of social roles and developmental frameworks in community services (Carroll, 2007). At present, supervision is about supporting, getting work results to meet administrative needs and being educational to ensure that supervisees are growing professionally in their careers.

The usual expectation from a supervisor is that he or she must have skills in humanity; in other words they must have good people skills. Some supervisors are good at the technical skills of their job but are less able use their human skills which help in building relationships, loyalty and motivations for supervisees to succeed in their profession. In my past experiences, I had the opportunity to supervise supervisees. When someone is supervised by some supervisors that had different experiences based on their human skills, training and understanding of supervision in human services.

These kinds of supervisors may be people with less experience in community services or they have not studied humanity subjects to prepare them for the supervision role. On other side of a coin, some workers/supervisees have less or no understanding of the supervision. Full time workers should at least have one hour supervision with their team leader or manager every fortnight. The one hour session is used for reflection and feedback about work performance.

Supervision is about nurturing employees and not about intimidating, challenging, or over powering them. It is about sharing knowledge, skills, work expectations as well as being committed to make supervisees successful in their roles rather than waiting for them to make a mistake. Supervisors need to have clear thinking and a specific idea of how one can support the individuals who work for you and the organization. It is the same as if you have a specific plan to maintain a service or process. Good supervision requires a road map to get people to where they want to go with their roles and careers (Wenger, 2009).

Supervision is all about reflecting on your role, the opportunity to grow professional and remain competent in your role as well as keeping a professional relationship with supervisor and team. Reflection is a process whereby a person reflects on what she/he brings to an interaction and how this may impact on how she/he views and manages that interaction. Supervision promotes a clear understanding of capacity building of individuals and provides leadership and strategic thinking in order to implement work

related tasks. Understanding function, role and authority of the position held involves openness, particularly open interaction and honest communication (Borders, 2001).

Therefore, supervision should:

Improve the quality of decision-making and
Enable effective line management and organizational
Identify and address issues related to caseloads and workload
Help to identify and achieve personal learning, career and development

These functions are reinforced by the Alfred Kadushin’s theory and model of supervision. There are many theories written about supervision practice that are not mentioned in this article. The writer encourages people take time to visit and read many theories in social work, social psychology and counseling that discusses supervision. He argues supervision in social work is useful and helpful in many ways. His argument goes back to earlier theories such as John Dawson (1926) who stated the functions of supervision in the following terms:

Administrative: The promotion and maintenance of good standards of work, co- ordination of practice with policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient and smooth-running office;

Educational: The educational development of each individual worker on the staff in a manner calculated to evoke her fully to realize her possibilities of usefulness; and

Supportive: Supporting workers to learn and grow professionally is one of the key roles of a manager within an organization. Some theories argue that managers must have a concern for both performance and learning of workers (Smith, 2012). The essentially managerial aspects of a managers’ work are their responsibility for monitoring and improving the work of others; and their managerial effectiveness is determined by their capacity to improve the work of others. If managers are not able to make this contribution, then what value are they adding? The ultimate justification of managers’ existence is the improvement of the work of their subordinates. If managers fail in this way they fail as managers (Smith, 2012).

Now we need to know what are the missions and needs of a good supervisor besides the characteristics. The answer will be somehow the same to answers given by some academics and practitioners who write up supervision theory. A good supervisor seems to have many of the same qualities of good teachers and good practitioners. They are empathic, genuine, open, and flexible. They respect their supervisees as persons and as developing professionals, and are sensitive to individual differences such as gender, race, ethnicity, skin colour and age of supervisees. They appear to be clam, comfortable with strategic thinking, evaluative and function intrinsically in the supervisor role, giving clear and frequent indications of their evaluation of the counsellor’s performance. Good supervisors must really enjoy supervision, remain committed to helping the supervisee

grow, and show commitment during supervision as well as being prepared for the supervision session. Supervisors show high levels of conceptual functioning, have a clear sense of their own strengths and limitations as a supervisor, and can identify how their personal traits and interpersonal style may affect the conduct of supervision. Finally, good supervisors have a sense of humor which helps both the supervisor and supervisee get through rough spots in their work together and achieve a healthy perspective on their work. Such personal traits and relationship factors are considered as significant as technical prowess in supervision (Borders, 2001).

In fact, good supervisors are able to function effectively in the roles of teacher, practitioner, and consultant, making informed choices about which role to employ at any given time with a particular supervisee (Borders, 2001).

Hence, supervision can be helpful when both the supervisor and supervisee respect the time dedicated to supervision and focus on the areas that the supervisee needs assistance or support. Being a supervisor can be an enjoyable and challenging role, and the supervisor must be prepared and bring useful skills from a variety of professional roles as well as knowing how to and when to use those in different situations. I must draw on my experience of both being supervisor and supervisee. I have raised some particular points that are fundamentally important for one to think about.

The central focus of supervision is the quality of practice offered by the supervisee to clients.

Supervision can be seen as having three aspects: administration (normative); education (formative) and support (restorative).Supervisors’ authority is derived from their positions in agencies and/or the appropriate community of practice (profession).

Monitoring and Evaluation

The monitoring and evaluation denotes finding out or deciding the amount or value of a particular phenomenon. Obioma (1990) defines evaluation as the qualitative judgment, which results from assessment, based on quantitative or qualitative data from the tools of testing and measurement. Evaluation and monitoring of anything or program would involve sample testing the products of the scheme to ascertain the level of literacy acquired as well as survey of the percentage level of literacy in the nation. There is however the need for periodic evaluation of each of the processes and decisions put in so as to ensure acceptability and effectiveness so that the end product would be desirable.

Evaluation on its own part would examine the quality and quantity of executors on ground in terms of the amount of governmental and non-governmental bodies involved in the implementation of the scheme; the number of teachers, pupils, classrooms, furniture and other infrastructure. Evaluation would also provide base-line data on area of effectiveness which need to be maintained and areas of weakness which should be improved upon periodic results of evaluation would present the trend and the blueprint for adjustments and remediation for the scheme as may be necessary. There should be an establishment of a supervisory chain whereby subject teachers have collegial supervision as well as being supervised by sectional heads. These sectional heads are supervised by head teachers who are in turn supervised by the appropriate arm of the Local Government Ministry. In this process the Local Government will be supervised by the State and the State by the Federal Government. In addition to this hierarchical arrangement, Intra- mural supervision provides for supervision where teachers of the same subjects supervise themselves in a collegial and co-operative manner. For instance, the supervision of the teaching exercise would have two or more teachers of supposedly equal competence and qualification seating in to evaluate and give corrections at the end while a colleague of theirs teaches. This is only an example of an aspect of which goes in the teaching – learning situation. Hence, Intra-mural supervision would enable class teachers, sectional heads, head teachers and even appointed ministerial supervisors to have peer supervision. This Intra-mural supervision as a new innovation in the supervision of education promises to remove the boss subordinate relationship which entrenches fear and dependence from the system. It also makes for the lapses which may arise from in- experienced appointed supervisors in the Board. In supervision some amount of experience is required on the job which one is supervising. In the fresh graduate’s case, from where will he get this experience? Apart from the removal of un thorough discharge of duties by appointed inexperienced supervisors, Intra-mural supervision is a source of up-dating professional competence of the practitioner. There is therefore a need to organize a workshop where the basics of Intra-mural supervision would be disseminated. Workshop on its own is another strategy for effective supervision. This entails, a colleague of equal competence and qualification, supervising and reporting on another colleague who had been posted to another station. This approach exposes innovations in the field to the supervising colleague as well as giving him opportunity to introduce the

innovations in his school to his supervisee. Just like in supervision, peer assessment is important but for objectivity and for documentation purposes, there is need for evaluation to follow the hierarchical arrangement. This hierarchical arrangement in evaluation would not exclude self and peer evaluation in the performance of one’s duties excepting that documents would be issued, collected, collated and interpreted by a superior officer. Evaluation should come in the form of a survey (if need be in a questionnaire form) and should cover areas such as:

Number of teachers and support staff available in the field as classified into groups.
Number of schools classification into operating bodies g. Government, NGO, voluntary agency etc.
Enrolment of
Number of training institutions and enrolment in these
Infrastructure available for the scheme (classrooms, furniture and other materials).
Graduates from training institutions year by year and weighting them against the enrolment (appropriate student: teacher ratio).
Job satisfaction of functionaries and the level of their
Difficulties encountered in the field and possible solutions pilot
Quality of products, practitioners and supports
Management of resources g., time.
Community assessment/benefits.
Curriculum

All these are evaluations which are carried on as the scheme progresses. On the overall view, there is need to assess the level of literacy in the country every 5 years and compare the result with the starting point statistic such that a trend could be observed. This periodic comparison, especially when took with the number of graduates of the scheme would advise the nation to look elsewhere for the needed solution.

Support and Advice

Traditional supervision services are generally homogeneous as far as human resources are concerned. There is little specialization or differentiation between officers of the same service in terms of the work to be done. They basically do the same things in different geographical areas or for different types of schools.

Consequently, job descriptions of supervisors are similar and largely coincide with the functions of the service itself.

That being said, job descriptions of supervisors do vary considerably between countries according to the specific category of supervisor being considered and the degree of precision of the tasks being prescribed. There is a list of functions assigned to supervisory officers in general all countries.

Administrative contains the following:

To submit the transfer and promotion proposals of teachers and employees and ensure that they are being executed;

To submit proposals for disciplinary proceedings within the elected governing body at block level) area to the District Basic Education Officer and, following his approval, execute them;
to send the records of life insurance of retired male/female teachers and other employees to the District Basic Education Officer and Accounts Officers;
to prepare the pay bills of all male/female teachers and other employees and send them to the Accounts Officers for disbursement and ensure the disbursement of salaries in time and maintenance of their service books; and
To prepare the bills of pensions, family pension and relief pension of all retired male/female teachers and send them to the Accounts Officers and ensure their

But one of the most important role is support and advice. Obviously, simple control without support will not easily lead to quality improvement. This is why, from the very beginning, these two dimensions of supervision have been intimately linked.

In most instances, support takes the form of advice given to teachers and head teachers during supervision visits, which cover both administrative and pedagogical issues. Other modalities of support should also be considered, such as: individual tutoring; demonstration lessons; in-service training programs; and organization of peer-learning.

Note that if the organization is large enough, the supervisor is fortunate to have a staff department, e.g., Human Resources (HR) Department that directs or supports many of the activities carried out by supervisors. The supervisor still carries out the supervisory responsibilities, but HR is a tremendous help. For example, HR guides and supports activities in staffing, development and management of personnel policies and records, training and development, performance appraisals and performance problems, career counseling, organization development, etc. HR provides this help and ensures that all activities conform to current rules and regulations.

The supervisors will provide advice and guidance to help you keep your research on track, but the responsibility for developing your work rests with you. Your supervisors will expect you to have your own ideas and your own solutions to problems. Your supervisors will provide advice on these.

In particular, you supervisors will provide advice and guidance to help you:

develop appropriate research practice and refine your plans and ideas
find and use relevant literature
understand relevant rules and regulations

But of course, the responsibility is on you to follow that advice. It can be very easy to hear positive comments and overlook the negative ones. It is important that you do not do this with the advice that your supervisors offer. Make time to reflect on the advice that your supervisors provide and take seriously any suggestions that they make. In addition to providing advice and guidance on your plans and ideas, the supervisors will provide

feedback on your completed work and progress. Your supervisors will provide feedback through:

formal supervisory meetings
comments on draft written work and provisional findings/results
reviewing your thesis before submission for examination

It is important that you keep an accurate record of the feedback that the supervisors provide and this will be invaluable as you come to prepare the final draft of your thesis for submission. However, you also need to be considerate when seeking feedback. If you are submitting draft written work or provisional findings/results for comment, make sure that this is well organized and presented – draft written work should be thorough proof read and spelling and other errors should be removed before it is submitted while provisional findings/results should be accurate and clearly labelled or described as appropriate. You also need to make sure that you allow your supervisors sufficient time to provide you with feedback – allow plenty of time for your supervisors to read and comment on your work.

Developing yourself and your skills is a big part of a research degree program. Your supervisors will help you to do this by:

working with you to develop an appropriate training plan
providing coaching or training in research skills relevant to your work
helping you understand the importance of a broad based training program including transferable skills that enhance your employability

Your supervisors will have a particular interest in making sure that you develop the skills you will need to complete your research degree, but it is important that you also look to develop your transferable skills such as communication skills, personal leadership, and team working. You will also need to make sure that your time spent on training activities is balanced against your primary need to complete your research degree on time.

6.4. Liaison

Because of the two previous functions, which include regular school visits, supervisors are also the main liaison agents between the top of the education system, where norms and rules are set, and the schools, where education really takes place. As expected of go- between agents, they have a double task: to inform schools of decisions taken by the center, and to inform the center of the realities at school level.

Their liaison role is, however, not only vertical: increasingly, supervisors are entrusted with horizontal relations and have a privileged role to play in identifying and spreading new ideas and good practices between schools. Particularly when ambitious reform programs are being launched, their role in disseminating the reform and in ensuring smooth implementation at the school level becomes important.

As if their job description was not sufficiently complex, supervisors must also establish good linkages with other services involved in quality development such as pre- and in-

service teacher training, curriculum development, preparation of national tests and examinations.

At this point, appreciative colleagues and organizational stakeholders accord you more status and credibility based on your position within the company.

Evan is grateful to Mary for suggesting the internship and introducing him to Dan, who is by far the most engaged and knowledgeable candidate. He’s more likely to take her suggestions seriously now that she has a proven record of success.

Supervisors and managers liaise between their employees and the project team, providing information from the team to their direct reports. But perhaps more importantly, they provide information about the project from their employees back up to the project team. Managers are in the best position to provide design input, usability results and employee feedback on particular aspects of the solution back to the project team.

Another brief about functions, Think where they fit in the scenario.

Helping Material: The Functions of Supervision

The functions of supervision. Examining the different functions of supervision throws up various questions and issues. These questions include asking ‘in whose interest does supervision work?’ Confusion also arises concerning notions such as ‘mentoring’, ‘practice teaching’ and ‘clinical supervision’. Here we explore Alfred Kadushin’s model of supervision and the insights it brings to these questions.

Contents: introduction·overseeing·Kadushin’s model of supervision·putting the functions together · ‘non-managerial’, ‘consultative’ or ‘professional’ supervision · supervision and the emergence of psychoanalysis and counselling ·

The immediate roots of what we have come to know as supervision in the human services lie in the development of social work and casework. We see this, for example, in the concern for the needs of clients; and the taking up of ideas and practices that owe much to the emergence of psychoanalysis. However, to make sense of supervision it is necessary to look to the various forms of apprenticeship that have existed in different societies. In ancient China, Africa and Europe (feudal and otherwise), for example, there are numerous examples of people new to a craft or activity having to reveal their work to, and explore it with, masters or mistresses i.e. those recognized as skilled and wise. This process of being attached to an expert, of ‘learning through doing’ allows the novice to gain knowledge, skill and commitment. It also enables them to enter into a particular ‘community of practice’ such as tailoring or midwifery (see Lave and Wenger 1991). By spending time with practitioners, by ‘looking over their shoulders’, taking part in the routines and practices associated with the trade or activity, and having them explore our work, we become full members of the community of practice.

Overseeing

Supervision can be found in the growth of charitable social agencies in Europe and North America during the nineteenth century. It involved the recruitment, organization and oversight of a large number of volunteers and, later, paid workers. The volunteers were commonly known as ‘visitors’. Their task was to call on a small number of families to offer advice and support. The main concern was to foster self help, and the adoption of ‘healthy’ habits and behaviours. In addition, visitors were also often in a position to access limited funds via their agencies, although such monies were only given after a careful investigation of the family’s circumstances. In other words, a decision had to be made as to whether they were ‘deserving’. (See, for example, the discussion of Maude Stanley, girls’ clubs and district visiting and ellen ranyard, ‘bible women’ and informal education).

The person assigning cases, organizing work and taking decisions on behalf of the agency was basically an ‘overseer’ – and hence the growing use of the term‘supervisor’. (In Latin super means ‘over’, and vidêre, ‘to watch, or see’). As Petes (1967: 170) has pointed out, traditionally, part of the overseer’s job was to ensure that work was done well and to standard. This can be viewed as an administrative task. However, overseers also had to be teachers and innovators. These were new forms of organization and intervention: ‘standards were being set, new methods developed’ (op cit.).

In these early forms – and especially in the work of the Charity Organization Society in the USA and UK – the present functions and approaches of supervision were signalled. As thinking and practice around casework became more sophisticated, especially through the work of pioneers such as Mary Richmond (1899; 1917; 1922), and demands for more paid workers grew, so supervision became more of an identified process. For example, books on the subject began to appear – e.g. Jeffrey R. Brackett’s Supervision and Education in Charity (1904).

Also, the hierarchical position of the supervisor (or paid agent) was revealed:

While the ‘paid agent’ acted as supervisor to the volunteer visitor, the paid agent ‘supervisor’ was himself supervised by the district committee, which had ultimate authority for case decisions… The paid agent supervisor was then in a middle-management position, as is true of supervisors today – supervising the direct service worker but themselves under the authority of the agency administrators. (Kadushin 1992: 6)

It is this hierarchical and managerial idea of supervision that tends to permeate much of the literature in social work.

Kadushin’s Model of Supervision

It is at this point that Alfred Kadushin’s discussion of supervision in social work becomes helpful. He goes back to earlier commentators such as John Dawson (1926) who stated the functions of supervision in the following terms:

Administrative –the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work, co-ordination of practice with policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient and smooth- running office;

Educational –the educational development of each individual worker on the staff in amanner calculated to evoke her fully to realize her possibilities of usefulness; and

Supportive –the maintenance of harmonious working relationships, the cultivation ofesprit de corps. [This is Kadushin’s (1992) rendering of Dawson 1926: 293].

It is a short step to translate these concerns into the current language of the

‘learning organization’. As Salaman (1995: 63) argues, managers must have a concern for both performance and learning.

[T]he essentially managerial aspects of managers’ work is their responsibility for monitoring and improving the work of others; their managerial effectiveness is determined by their capacity to improve the work of others. if managers are not able to make this contribution, then what value are they adding? The only ultimate justification of managers’ existence is the improvement of the work of their subordinates. If managers fail in this way they fail as managers.

In this way managers are expected to develop relationships and environments that enable people to work together and respond to change. Such ‘joint performance’ involves having common goals, common values, the right structures, and continuing training and development (Drucker 1988: 75).

I want to concentrate on how managers approach supervision – later I will suggest that the threefold education/administration/support model also works for ‘non-managerial’ supervision. In our experience of management some of us will have found that all three elements were present – and were acknowledged by the parties involved. As managers we may well express a concern for the well being of those we are responsible for; we may also attend to gaining clarity around the tasks to be achieved (and how they are to be undertaken). In addition, we may have a care for staff development. We may well explore particular incidents and situations and seeing how they could be handled in different ways.

There may also be situations where these elements are not all present. For example, we may have slipped into a strong task orientation with a particular worker. Or, and this is quite common, we may focus rather too strongly on the support side. In voluntary and not-for-profit organizations, it is not uncommon to find that staff require a good deal of ‘working with’!

I find it helpful to think of the three elements as inter linked (or as overlapping). They flow one into another. If we are to remove one element than the process becomes

potentially less satisfying to both the immediate parties – and less effective. It is easy to simply identify managerial supervision with administrative supervision.

Administration

Kadushin tightens up on Dawson’s formulation and presents his understanding of the three elements in terms of the primary problem and the primary goal. In administrative supervision the primary problem is concerned with thecorrect, effective and appropriate implementation of agency policies and procedures. The primary goal is to ensure adherence to policy and procedure (Kadushin 1992: 20). The supervisor has been given authority by the agency to oversee the work of the supervisee. This carries the responsibility:

… both to ensure that agency policy is implemented – which implies a controlling function – and a parallel responsibility to enable supervisees to work to the best of their ability. (Brown and Bourne 1995: 10)

It also entails a responsibility not to lose touch with the rationale for the agency – ‘to provide a first-class service for people who need it (or in some cases are required to have it, in order that they or others may be protected from harm)’ (opcit.).

Education

In educational supervision the primary problem for Kadushin (1990: 20) is worker ignorance and/or ineptitude regarding the knowledge, attitude and skills required to do the job. The primary goal is to dispel ignorance and upgrade skill. The classic process involved with this task is to encourage reflection on, and exploration of the work. Supervisees may be helped to:

Understand the client better;
Become more aware of their own reactions and responses to the client;
Understand the dynamics of how they and their client are interacting;
Look at how they intervened and the consequences of their interventions;
Explore other ways of working with this another similar client situations (Hawkins and Shohet 1989: 42)

Support

In supportive supervision the primary problem is worker morale and job satisfaction. The primary goal is to improve morale and job satisfaction (Kadushin 1992: 20). Workers are seen as facing a variety of job-related stresses which, unless they have help to deal with them, could seriously affect their work and lead to a less than satisfactory service to clients. For the worker, there is ultimately the problem of ‘burnout’.

Kadushin argues that the other two forms of supervision focus on instrumental needs, whereas supportive supervision is concerned with expressive needs (ibid.: 292).

The supervisor seeks to prevent the development of potentially stressful situations, removes the worker from stress, reduces stress impinging on the worker, and helps her adjust to stress. The supervisor is available and approachable, communicates confidence in the worker, provides perspective, excuses failure when appropriate, sanctions and shares responsibility for different decisions, provides opportunities for independent functioning and for probable success in task achievement. (Kadushin 1992: 292)

Some Issues

First, the way these functions are depicted tends towards seeing supervisees in deficit. They are lacking in certain ways – and it is the job of the supervisor to help them put things right. The problem is that supervisors can easily slip into acting on, or upon behalf of, supervisees. Kadushin is primarily concerned with organizational or managerial supervision. Such supervisor-managers have responsibility to the organization or agency for the actions of their staff and so such a deficit orientation may not be surprising. However, there will be a number of us who would argue for a different approach to management – one that that stresses conversation and a concern for fostering an environment in which workers can take responsibility for their own actions. I do not think that this criticism undermines the shape of the model, i.e. the splitting into administrative, educative and supportive functions, but it does remind us to take great care when approaching it.

Second, I am always a bit wary of fuzzy notions such as ‘support’. At one level I could argue that having a concern for the management and development of the worker (i.e. looking to administrative and educational supervision) is support in itself. I suppose this is where the various functions could be seen as overlapping or feeding into each other. On the other hand, separating out ‘support’ does have the virtue of making explicit the need to have a concern for the emotions of supervisees. We make the main focus the person of the supervisee rather than the work. By incorporating support into the model we are at least able to frame the concern for the person of the supervisee within the larger concern for the service to the client.

Third, there is always the question of what may have been left out from the model. Approaching it from a managerial perspective, especially where you are concerned with the operation of teams, there might be the temptation to add in mediation as a function (Richards et al 1990 in Brown and Bourne 1995: 9). Then there may be issues around the naming of the separate functions. For example, is it helpful to separate administration from management, would management be a better overall title and so on?

Fourth, there is the question of how tied this model is to managerial supervision. Proctor (1987) uses the same basic split but uses different terms – formative (education), normative (administration) and restorative (support). This has the virtue of lifting the administrative category out of line-management and thus, allowing the model to be approached from a ‘non-managerial’ standpoint. We will return to this later. Even given these questions, the Kadushin framework remains helpful. It has found a consistent echo in the social work field, and in the English language literature of supervision.

Putting the Functions Together

Having mapped out Kadushin’s model it is now possible to look at some of the different foci that can be attributed to supervision. For example, Hawkins and Shohet (1989) list 10 different foci and then categorize them in relation to Kadushin’s elements.

The primary foci of supervision (after Hawkins and Shohet 1989; 2007)

1	To provide a regular space for the supervisees to reflect upon the content and process of their work	Educational
2	To develop understanding and skills within the Work	Educational
3	To receive information and another perspective concerning one’s work	Educational/Supportive
4	To receive both content and process feedback	Educational/Supportive
5	To be validated and supported both as a person and as a worker	Supportive
6	To ensure that as a person and as a worker one is not left to carry unnecessarily difficulties, problems and projections alone	Supportive
7	To have space to explore and express personal distress, restimulation, transference or counter- transference that may be brought up by the work	Administrative
8	To plan and utilize their personal and professional	Administrative resources better
9	To be pro-active rather than re-active	Administrative
10	To ensure quality of work	Administrative/ Supportive

Hawkins and Shohet (1989: 43) suggest that foci one and two could be seen as educational; foci three and four as educational/supportive; foci five and six as supportive; foci seven to nine as administative/supportive and ten as administrative. I know that when I attempted to put categories against the foci – I ended up with some differences. For example, I could argue that foci 8 can be approached as an educative element.

I know some people will have problems with the language and the basic conceptual position that these writers have taken up. For example, to what extent can a supervisor/manager ensure that things happen when they are working in conjunction with others? They can work for conditions that will foster good quality work – but they then have to leave matters to their team members. ‘Non-managerial’, ‘consultative’ or ‘professional’ supervision

At this point I want to return to the idea of ‘non-managerial supervision – sometimes described as consultant (e.g. Brown 1984) or professional supervision in the literature. The most common distinction I hear made is that the manager’s first point of reference has to be the interest of the organization or agency (it is on their authority that she or he is acting), while the non-managerial supervisor looks to the development of the worker.

Sometimes this is reduced to the difference between administrative and educational supervision. That is to say, one version argues that managers should not be concerned with educational supervision; and consultant supervisors should only focus on education and support. There is some truth in portraying the primary responsibilities in this way – but it would be very misleading to leave it there. As we have seen, Kadushin argues that management supervision involves all three categories. I want to suggest that both ‘managerial’ and ‘non-managerial’ supervisors share larger responsibilities – to the client group and to other professionals; and that both look to the development of the worker.

Supervision and the emergence of psychoanalysis and counselling

Some of the confusion around supposed differences arises from the roots of consultant, non-managerial or professional supervision. Its development has, arguably, owed much to the emergence of psychoanalysis and counselling. In the case of the former, practice, supervision, teaching and personal analysis have formed the central elements of training since the 1920s. If we consider current approaches to training social workers, teachers or informal and community educators, then we can see similar elements. For example, with regard to this programme there are various ‘teaching’ moments (perhaps most obviously seen in the form of lectures, study materials, seminars and study groups); self-assessment (as against self-analysis), practice (whether in the form of our day-to-day work, any placements we undertake, and our engagement with other students) and supervision.

Student or trainee supervision can be contrasted with practitioner supervision. The latter is addressed to established workers. Some writers, such as Page and Wosket (1994: 2), claim that there are many differences between the focus in supervision of students or trainees, and that of established practitioners. The former are more likely to be concerned with issues of technique, boundary, understanding the material clients’ bring, and dealing with personal feelings of anxiety. ‘The experienced practitioner is more likely to be concerned with teasing out relationship dynamics, choosing intervention options and perhaps dealing with feelings of frustration and boredom towards clients’ (op cit.). This is something that you may like to think about. My own experience of supervision is that the degree of difference in these respects can easily be overstated. Experienced practitioners may have a greater repertoire of experiences and models to draw upon, and may have grown jaded. But the supervisor who fails to attend to the extent to which experienced practitioners face new situations and different clients, can overlook the chance of practitioners feeling like novices again. Similarly, those labelled as student workers may well be experiencing frustration and boredom toward their clients!

However, the demand for ‘practitioner supervision’ in counselling can be seen as a key factor in the spread of non-managerial or consultant supervision. By the early 1950s, with the ‘coming of age’ of the profession, there was a substantial growth ‘in the proportion of practitioners with significant experience’, many of whom valued, ‘having a fellow practitioner to act in a consultative capacity’ (Page and Wosket 1994: 2). This linking of consultant supervision with the development of counselling is significant. The form that supervision takes may well mirror or adopt ways of working from the host profession.

Thus, a counsellor supervisor may draw heavily on the theory and practice of a counselling model and apply this to supervision.

A psycho-dynamic supervisor would interpret the material being presented and use an awareness of the relationship dynamics between himself and the counsellor in supervision as a means of supervising. A client-centred supervisor would be concerned to communicate the core conditions of acceptance, respect and genuiness to her supervisee. (Page and Wosket 1994: 4)

We now can begin to appreciate why many of the arguments and questions around supervision can become confusing. Contrasts between managerial and consultant supervision, for example, inevitably focus on the managerial element. Yet those involved may well be drawing on very different models and sets of understandings. The debate may be between a psycho-dynamic and a task orientation!

This drawing upon from psycho-dynamic and counselling can also add to the common slippage from supervision into therapy or ‘working with’. We have already noted problems around this area with regard to the management of staff – and it applies with great force in consultant supervision.

The first thing to say here is that it may well be appropriate for us as supervisors to change the focus of the session from ‘supervision’ to ‘counselling’. The situation may demand it – and we have what may be described as a ‘counselling interlude’. However, there are two particular dangers: we may slip into a different framework without being aware of it; and, further, even where the shift is conscious, it may not be appropriate. That is to say we should have held our boundaries as supervisors.

There can also be confusion between shifting our frame of reference and drawingupon insights from a particular field. It may be that to properly approach a question that has arisen in workers’ practice we need to attend to their emotional and psychological lives. Here we may draw upon, for example, psycho-dynamic insights, to work with supervisees to enhance the quality of their interactions with clients. This does not entail moving beyond a supervisor’s frame of reference. Our focus remains on the enhancement of practice. However, where our primary concern is no longer the work, but the well- being of the supervisee, this is a different situation. When the worker becomes the primary focus (rather than the work), I think there is a significant shift – we move into the realm of counselling or ‘working with’ proper. We should not make the mistake of describing this as supervision.

Responsibilities to clients, other professionals and the community. This last discussion highlights something fundamental about supervision. While the manager may have in mind the needs of the agency; and the practice teacher or college supervisor the needs of the student-worker, their fundamental concern in supervision lies with the quality of service offered by the supervisee to their clients. In other words, supervision focuses on the work of the practitioner.

Clients at the Centre. It is easy to fall into the trap of viewing changes in the individual supervisee as the central goal of the process. It is not difficult to understand how this happens. As we have seen, in supervision we draw on understandings and ways of working that we have developed in other settings.

The most obvious of these are ‘counselling’ and other one-to-one relationships. Yet, as Kadushin (1992: 23) puts it in relation to managerial supervision, ‘The supervisor’s ultimate objective is to deliver to agency clients the best possible service, both quantitatively and qualitatively, in accordance with agency policies and procedures’. The same applies to consultant or non-managerial supervision:

The responsibility of the supervisor to protect the interests of the client emerges as a central component of trainee supervision. Attention to client welfare is equally important… in practitioner supervision. (Page and Wosket 1994: 9).

The British Association of Counselling makes the point unambiguously: ‘The primary purpose of supervision is to protect the best interests of the client’ (BAC 1987, quoted by Hawkins and Shohet 1987: 41). Change in supervisees is fostered for a purpose – the enhancement of the service they provide for their clients. However, in considering this we also have to take into account what may be in the interests of the community as a whole.

Accountability to the Wider Community. In the well known phrase of C. Wright Mills

there are considerable dangers in seeing private troubles merely as troubles – and not as public issues (and vice versa). There is always the danger that we ‘slip past structure to focus on isolated situations…, a tendency for problems to be considered as the problems of individuals’ (Mills 1943: 534). As practitioners and supervisors we have to balance the needs and wishes of the individual with considerations of those of others in the There will be times when what may be identified as being in the interest of the client seriously affects the rights and lives of others. The tensions can be quickly seen if we examine the four basic or first order principles identified by Sarah Banks (1995: 25
46) as central to social work (and, indeed, informal and community education):

Respect for and promotion of individuals’ rights to self
Promotion of welfare or well-being
Equality
Distributive

As supervisors we may have to remind supervisees of the requirement to consider the extent to which a course of action they are pursuing leads to human flourishing, promotes equality or whether they are ‘distributing public resources (whether they be counselling, care or money) according to certain criteria based variously on rights, dessert and need’ (Banks 1995: 44)? In a similar fashion we have to reflect on our actions as supervisors.

Being part of a Community of Practice. There are likely to be endless arguments about considerations such as these – especially when they are thought about in relation to specific cases and situations. We may have our individual ideas, but as members of a community of practice we need also to consider the views of others. That is to say we need to appeal to collective wisdom. Within professional groupings a key port of call here is a code of ethics (see Banks 1995: 67 – 93).

I want to suggest here that while managerial supervisors, as members of the profession or community of practice, have a duty to consider the appropriate standards and codes, the main way that they do this is via the policies and practices of the agency. On the other hand, while non-managerial or consultant supervisors may be contracted by the supervisee (or the College in the case of student workers), their authority comes from their membership of the community of practice [2]. Their concern for the service offered to clients is fed through a set of shared understandings concerning what constitutes ‘good practice’. In other words, at certain points in the supervision process they may be required to represent that constitutes acceptable behaviour or good practice.

In Figure 3 I have tried to bring out the position with regard to professional and managerial supervision. Professional supervisors act on behalf of the community of practice of which they are members. They should have a concern with the quality of service offered and the needs of the wider community. This links back to the way that Proctor (1987) redefined Kadushin’s administrative category as ‘normative’. If we were to adjust Kadushin’s (1992: 20) definition it would read something like the following:

The primary problem in administrative supervision is concerned with the quality of the supervisee’s practice in respect of professional standard and ethics. The primary goal is to ensure adherence to these standards.

In other words, so called ‘non-managerial’ supervisors have an administrative responsibility. Where workers consistently fail to live up to these standards or present a danger to clients they have a responsibility to act. This could take the form of them discouraging the supervisee from practice, or of reporting matters to the appropriate professional body. Managerial supervisors also look to professional concerns and to the interests of clients and the wider community, but they do so through the framework of agency policies and procedures.

A Question of Power

We can see in all this that there are questions concerning power relationships within supervision. There are issues arising from position in agency hierarchies; and the extent to which dynamics around gender, ‘race’, age and class (for example) intersect with the roles of supervisor and supervisee (see, for example, Brown and Bourne 1995: 32 – 49). Turner (1996 – in this unit) explores some issues and problems around this area. Here I just need to make three points.

First, because one person may be seen as more powerful (perhaps in the sense that they occupy a particular position, or are experts in their field) this should not encourage us to fall into the trap of seeing the other party as powerless. For example, Erving Goffman has provided us with numerous examples of how the performance of one party in an encounter depends on getting the right sorts of cues and responses from other participants. When these are denied or subverted in some way then the performance becomes problematic. Thus managers, for example, require information from their subordinates in order to function. The subordinate, by managing the flow and character of information is in a position to affect how a manager sees an issue or situation.

Second, it is not possible to eliminate power differentials in supervision. Some writers have argued strongly for more dialogical approaches to supervision in order to ‘flatten’ unequal relations and to allow interaction across ‘difference’ (e.g. Waite 1995). Yet even in such forms there are power relationships – e.g. the supervisor is responsible to the community of practice. However, this need not be a one-way relationship. Here it is useful to think of supervisees also as members of the professional community (Waite 1995: 137 – 141). They may already be ‘full’ members (recognized and qualified) or apprentices. As such supervisors can be held accountable for the quality of the service they provide; and supervisees for their practice with clients. Both have a responsibility to participate appropriately in the professional community of which they are a part.

Third, and linked to the above, we need to bear in mind questions of authority. Power is often discussed alongside questions of authority. When we talk of the authority of the supervisor, for example, what we can mean is that the supervisor has some sort of right or entitlement to act in relation to the supervisee. Managers occupy a certain position in the agency and with this is associated the ability to direct the labours of their staff. There are various formal and informal

‘rules’ within which this may take place. Some activities may be seen as legitimate, others as not [3]. The same applies to supervisors undertaking their work to meet the requirements of professional training programmes. To operate, the actions of supervisors must be seen as legitimate – by the supervisee and by significant others. Thus, in certain situations supervisors may be in a position to effectively impose their requirements on supervisees (for example, around the way in which someone records). This they may do through the threat of sanctions such as a ‘bad’ assessment, or the allocation of unrewarding work. However, such actions may not be viewed as legitimate by the supervisee or other interested parties. In other words, their authority is questioned.

The College or Training Programme Supervisor

At this point it may be useful to reflect more fully on the role of the supervisor within professional training programmes such as those involved with informal and community education.

For the professional or non-managerial supervisor within a training programme the lines of their authority are fairly clear. They act on behalf of the profession or community of

practice. Students within programmes are having to develop, and provide evidence concerning, their work so that they may be recognized as qualified to join the professional community. Supervisors agree to provide a certain number of sessions and an assessment of supervisees’ abilities for the training provider. The training provider, in turn, is accredited act for the profession by a relevant professional body (in the case of the College’s informal and community education programmes this is CeVe Scotland and the English National Youth Agency).

A supervisor may also hold some form of line-managerial responsibility for the student- worker. In their supervision of the student-worker they will, thus, want to represent the interests of the agency and safeguard the quality of service offered to the agency’s clientele. At the same time their involvement within the training programme highlights their responsibility to the community of practice or profession. Perhaps the best way of representing this is as a dual line of authority – to the profession and to the agency.

Training programmes are one of the few areas within informal and community education in Britain and Ireland where there is something approaching a formal mechanism linking supervision and the community of practice. We do not have full professional associations, nor codes of ethics. However, with the development of the accreditation of fieldwork supervisors and of training programmes – especially in Scotland – we have the beginnings of a technical framework (CeVe 1995).

Mentoring and Clinical Supervision

Talk of training brings me round to some variations or additions to the supervisors’ role. In some settings, the supervisor is asked to become more of a practice teacher or mentor. Their task is not just to enable the supervisee to reflect on practice and to develop new understandings and ways of working, but also to teach in a more formal sense. Mentors and practice teachers may well need to instruct a student-worker on how to proceed in a particular situation; or to provide theoretical insights. This comes closer to the apprentice-master/mistress relationship with which we began this discussion. Mentors are skilled performers – they can be observed, consulted and their actions copied.

For my own part I know that I am apt to slip into a ‘telling’ mode more often than I ought within a supervision framework – so I have to attend to this area. The line I try to apply in this area runs something like the following:

Supervision is a space for the supervisee to explore their practice, to build theory, attend to feelings and values, and to examine how they may
The supervisor should only switch into a more instructional mode where they are reasonably certain that the supervision process will be enhanced by their doing
Such ‘instructional interludes’ should remain interludes e. they should as far as is possible be brief and oriented to resuming exploration.

I suppose the key idea underlying this is that we should not act to undermine supervisees’ ability and commitment to take responsibility for exploring their practice. All this is not to say that the supervisor, outside the supervision session, should not also have an

instructional role. However, where they do so there is always the danger that expectations in one setting (the instructional) may be carried across into another (supervision). Here supervisors will have to make clear the difference between the two forms – and mark the boundary in some way e.g. by sitting in a different way, or waiting for the supervisee to begin the session.

Clinical Supervision

Instruction and supervision can get confused is in the arena of educational supervision. This form of supervision is sometimes described as ‘clinical’. This way of describing or approaching supervision derives from medical experience. It has been popularized in teacher training – especially in North America. As Cogan (1973: 8) one of the pioneers of the approach in education has commented, the use of the term ‘clinical’ has involved some resistance, but what he particularly wanted to highlight was use of direct observation in the approach. Apprentice surgeons learn their trade by first observing the skilled practitioner at work; then by undertaking surgery under close surveillance. In this way they begin to develop their ‘professional artistry’ (Schön 1983; 1987).

A working definition of clinical supervision has been given by Goldhammer et al (1993: 4) in what has become pretty much the set text on the field:

Clinical supervision is that aspect of instructional supervision which draws upon data from direct firsthand observation of actual teaching, or other professional events, and involves face-to-face and other associated interactions between the observer(s) and the person(s) observed in the course of analyzing the observed professional behaviours and activities and seeking to define and/or develop next steps toward improved performance.

I think it is helpful to think of clinical supervision as a subset of educational supervision rather than confusing the two. Some approaches to supervision benefit directly from the fact that the supervisor has not observed practice. This is because supervisees have to articulate what happened – and what they were thinking and feeling. It is much easier for us as supervisors to focus on what was happening for the practitioner if we are not encumbered by our own direct memories of the encounter or incident.

On the other hand, directly observed practice also has its benefits. As we have seen it allows for feedback and the facility for the supervisor to introduce other material from the situation. Managerial supervisors will often engage in this form of activity on a day-to- day basis

Conclusion

In this discussion particular questions have been highlighted. Some of the main points developed are as follows:

The central focus of supervision is the quality of practice offered by the supervisee to clients.

Supervision can be seen as having three aspects: administration (normative); education (formative) and support (restorative).

Supervisors’ authority is derived from their positions in agencies and/or the appropriate community of practice (profession).

There are particular issues arising from the hierarchical position of supervisors.

In some forms of supervision direct observation of practice is a major obstacle to the exploration of practice; in others an

I am conscious that I have left a number of important questions unasked or unanswered. The various issues discussed here have particular implications for what areas legitimately may be discussed within supervision; what supervisors themselves may put on the agenda, and so on.

Notes

Actually Hawkins and Shohet use the term ‘managerial’ to describe the administrative category in Kadushin’s

This is why in this item I like to use the term professional supervision rather than consultant or non-managerial supervision.

The classic statement of this position was made by Max Weber. He described such authority as ‘rational-legal’ (in contrast to traditional and charismatic forms of authority). See Gerth and Mills (1948) pp. 245-252.

Self-Assessment Questions

1 What possible role conflicts will supervisors face when trying to fulfill the different core functions?

2 The expected outcomes of this unit were that you would gain a sound grasp of the roles that supervision services play. How these services can make an institution successful reflect on all components?

Suggested Readings

Borders, L. D, (2001), the Good Supervisor, THE INTERNATIONAL CHILD AND YOUTH CARE NETWORK, <http://wwhttp://www.cyc-net.org/cyc-online/cycol- 0401-supervision.htmlw.cyc-net.org/cyc-online/cycol-0401-supervision.html> viewed on 19th December, 2012.

Carroll. (2007). One More Time: What is Supervision? Psychotherapy in Australia.

Vol. 13: 3.

Carroll, M, (2007) One More Time: What is Supervision?, Psychotherapy in Australia, Vol. 13 No. 3, Australia <http://www.supervisioncentre.com>viewed on 20th December, 2012.

Smith, M. K. (1996, 2005, 2012) ‘The Functions of Supervision’, the Encyclopedia of Informal Education <http://www.infed.org/biblio/functions_of_supervision.htm> viewed on 19th December, 2012.

Social Work Reform Board Department for Education Sanctuary Buildings, (2012), Standards for Employers and Supervision Framework, Viewed on 18th December, 2012. <http://www.education.gov.uk/swrb/a0074263/standards-for-employers- and-supervision-framework>

Wenger, L, (2009), The Ten Commandments of Good Supervision, Ezine Article,

<http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Ten-Commandments-of-Good-Supervision& id=2297219> viewed on 20th December, 2012.

Unit–7

SYNERGISTIC SUPERVISON

Compiled by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Reviewed by: Hamid Ali Nadeem

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………… 99

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………. 100

Dual Focus…………………………………………………………………………………….. 101
Joint Effort…………………………………………………………………………………….. 101
Two Way Communication……………………………………………………………….. 102
Focus on Competence……………………………………………………………………… 103
Growth Orientation………………………………………………………………………….. 103
Self-Assessment Questions……………………………………………………………….. 105
Activity………………………………………………………………………………………….. 105
Recommended Readings………………………………………………………………….. 106

INTRODUCTION

Supervision can be viewed as a process of managing functions intended to promote the achievement of institutional goals and to enhance the personal and professional capabilities of staff. Supervision interprets the institutional mission and focuses human and fiscal resources on the promotion of individual and organizational competence.

Supervision attends to the accomplishment of the institution and unit’s goals and to the personal and professional welfare of the staff. An effective supervisor provides by assistance to staff members in meeting their personal and professional goals within the context of the division and the institution. Supervision policy should, then, be directed toward the following objectives:

Model practice focused on student learning and education of the whole
Accomplish the unit and institution’s goals and
Fulfill the institutional functions assigned to the
Coordinate the recruitment and selection process of new staff
Coordinate the orientation and training of new hired staff members.
Consider the personal and professional welfare of the staff
Establish good communication between members of the unit and
Conduct and coordinate the performance appraisal of staff
Address needs of departing and remaining staff members when employee separation

All staff members are entitled to quality supervision. Supervision is ongoing and includes two-way communication to achieve the dual purposes of institutional and staff member development. Supervision will focus on competence with the supervisor responsible for leadership toward the accomplishment of meeting institutional and staff needs. Staff members should be given clear guidance regarding expectations about their role in the unit.

The integrated staffing model operates on the principle of all components of the model being interrelated and strongly influenced by supervision. Therefore, it is important to mention the five other dimensions of the model, orientation, staff development, performance appraisal, and separation. Supervision, as the linchpin of the model, permeates each of these dimensions. Consequently, supervision principles as discussed here should not be considered in isolation, rather, should be applied to each dimension of the model.

Supervision is not always easy. A supervisor is often called upon to make decisions based upon the knowledge and skills which have been acquired through the years of professional involvement. A supervisor must serve many functions. Among these are:

Articulating and achieving the unit’s missions and needs
Monitoring and managing the climate of the unit
Fostering individual development
Developing teamwork capabilities and group resources
Coordinating work activities
Promoting active problem solving

The process of supervision can take on one or a combination of styles, and one particular style may not be appropriate for every supervisory situation. It is important that a supervisor is aware of his or her predominate approach to supervision so that the style may be adapted as the situation or the staff member requires. The four approaches included in the instrument are:

Authoritarian – based on the belief that staff members require constant attention
Laissez Faire – based on the desire to allow staff members freedom in accomplishing job responsibilities.
Companionable – based on a friendship-like relationship.
Synergistic – a cooperative effort between the supervisor and the staff member.

This unit comprises of Dual Focus, Joint Effort, Two way communications, Focus on Competence, Growth Orientation.

OBJECTIVES

At the successful completion of this unit, a student is most probably able to:

To understand the concept of supervision and most specific ally what is synergetic
To know how dual focus works, especially dual focus on working toward the goals of the institution and department and on promoting the personal and professional growth of the staff members.
To analyze the concepts of growth orientation, two way communication and focus on competence.

Dual Focus

Staff members need to feel that they have a significant influence on selecting and defining the goals of the unit and in devising strategies to accomplish them. If staff members perceive goals as being imposed on them, they may not make a personal investment in trying to achieve the goals of the unit. For example, it is a given that a successful Residence Life operation has a process for assigning rooms and roommates to new students. However, the individual staff members can play a large part in defining how that process will most effectively work.

The starting point of synergistic supervision is that it focuses both on working toward the goals of the institution and department and on promoting the personal and professional growth of the staff members. With this dual focus, it is fundamental to engage staff in the process of approaching institutional and departmental goals. It is vital that supervisors show concern for their staff members growth and development, which begins by establishing a relationship based upon trust, respect, openness, and mutuality.

Action Suggestions:

Are you having conversations about how the supervisor’s job responsibilities enhance the goals of the department or university? Are the supervisor’s responsibilities of the caliber that they enhance the academic program and bring a practical application to what’s learned through their coursework? Do the supervisor’s goals show a connection between their work and the department/ university’s goals? Is the supervisor knowledgeable about the Division of Student Affairs and University policies (and professional expectations?) (E.g. Sexual Misconduct Policies which includes a statement on staff dating students.)

Joint Effort

Supervision is not something done to staff but rather a cooperative activity in which each party has an important contribution to make. Plans for accomplishing tasks such as determining unit priorities, scheduling and distributing work, and coordinating the efforts of the division are worked out jointly between the supervisor and the staff member.

The relationship between supervisors and staff members should be mutual and equal. Both parties must create clearly defined goals together and work toward meeting those goals through supervision. When supervisors and staff members contribute equally, supervision can become infinitely successful.

Action Suggested:

Are both the supervisor and supervisor putting forth energy and demonstrating commitment to this professional relationship? Does the supervisor view their role as one of mentor or coach? Is this known to the supervisor? Are job responsibilities and goals for the supervisor clearly established?

Synergistic supervision is a cooperative effort between the supervisor and members that allows to effect of the joint effort to be greater than the sum of their individual contributions. Supervision in this approach has a dual focus: accomplishment of the organization’s goal and support of the staff in the accomplishment of their personal and professional development goals. This approach to supervision emphasizes the identification of potential problems early; the supervisor and member then jointly develop strategies to

prevent or ameliorate problem situations. Supervision is dedicated to assist all members to enhance their knowledge and skills, which can lead to advancement within the organization and profession.

Two Way Communication

In the synergistic model of staffing practices, supervision is dependent upon a high level of trust between staff members and supervisors. Staff members must be willing to allow supervisors to learn personal information about them. Staff members must also feel free to give their supervisors honest, direct feedback. Communication is key in developing this trust.

The essence of developing a healthy and effective supervisory relationship is open and honest communication. In order to create the most successful use of supervision, both supervisors and staff members must be willing to know one another on a personal level and to learn about the daily functions of each other’s positions. Supervisors and staff members should create an environment where they can provide and receive all types of feedback.

Action Suggestions:

Is there a professional comfort level between the supervisor and supervisor so the two can openly communicate?

Do the supervisor and supervisor understand the expectations each has for the other? In what way is trust developing?

Does the supervisor ask for feedback as a means of modeling open communication?

Focus on Competence

Supervision should concentrate on four areas of staff competence:

Knowledge and information – Staff members must understand how to effectively perform the duties of their job. This includes, but is not limited to understand college student development theory, current laws and other legal parameters of practice, standards of professional practices, ethical standards, and institutional rules and policies.

Work-related skills – Supervisors must ensure that staff members stay current on developing trends within the field of student development and that they are trained in a wide range of skills related to their job description, such as interpersonal communication, goal setting, and computer skills. For student affairs professionals to remain effective, these skills have to be refreshed regularly. This is especially true for skills that are not used on a regular basis. Supervisors must also provide the means for staff members to develop and acquire new skills.

Personal skills – The synergistic style emphasizes a holistic approach to supervision. Just as attention must be paid to development of a staff member’s work-related skills, so too must personal skills be developed. To function successfully as a professional, individuals must acquire skills in areas such as time management, anger control, diet and exercise, and retirement planning.

Attitudes – Supervisors must maintain a positive attitude among their staff members. Positive attitudes can motivate individuals to apply knowledge or skills to strive toward personal, unit, and division goals.

Student affairs professionals are involved in a people business. Therefore, their attitude toward people, especially students, must be appropriate. Whether a staff member approaches tasks with an attitude of enthusiasm or sarcasm often determines that staff member’s success.

Build knowledge and information Teach work-related skills Guide on personal and professional development skills Address effective professional attitudes.

Action Suggestion:

Do supervision meetings include discussion of professional topics which enhance the GA’s knowledge base? Is the supervisor clear on skills needed for the position and is there opportunity to learn or hone these skills? Is the supervisor being coached on professional behavior and attitude?

Growth Orientation

career anchors (Table 1), it may be much easier to help that person climb the career ladder and find work assignments that are congruent with their interests and abilities.

Technical and Functional Competence

The self-image of people who have this anchor is tied to their feelings of competence in the particular areas they are in, and consequently they are not interested in management, though they will accept management responsibilities within their technical or functional area of competence.

Managerial Competence

The self-image of people in this group involves management per se as the ultimate goal. Specific technical functional jobs are seen only as necessary interim stages on the way to the higher, general administrative levels.

Security and Stability

People anchored in security tend to do what is required of them by their employers to maintain job security, a decent income, and a stable future in the form of a good retirement program, benefits, and the like.

Creativity

These people seem to have an overarching need to build or create something that is entirely their own product. Self-extension through the creation of a product or process is the key to these people’s career anchor; however, they lose interest once the programs are up and running successfully.

Basic Identity

These people tend to see their title, uniform, and other trapping of office as a fundamental basis for their self-definition.

Service to Others

These people are in occupations such as counseling, social work etc. The interpersonal competence and helping are ends in themselves rather than means to an end.

Adapted from Winston, R. B., Jr. & Creamer, D. G. (1997). Improving staffing practices in student affairs (pp. 201-203). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. This material is used by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

It is important that supervisors have a clear understanding of adult development theory to best relate to and help develop staff members at different life stages. The entry level individual has needs, personal and professional, that are far different than the individual that has been in the field for several years. Two individuals such as these should never be supervised in the same manner.

Think of “student development” as it applies to supervision. It is necessary to perform

assessment through supervisions of current abilities, skills or knowledge and to explore career aspirations, current stage of development and expectation of work. Staff members

should feel that they are more proficient at their jobs and should have a sense of accomplishment with their positions through this process.

Action Suggestions:

Are their regular conversations on the professional and personal growth of the supervisor? Are professional development opportunities outside of the supervisor position discussed and encouraged? Do the established goals have assessment points along the way?

Proactivity:

Identify potential performance problems early Pro-act to concerns rather than react Rule of Thumb: Nip it in the Bud both participants raise concerns early (not a sign of weakness).

Action Suggestions:

Are concerns addressed early? Is the supervisor or supervisor comfortable giving and receiving feedback? Is raising concerns early accepted by both as a growth opportunity and sign of open/constructive communication (not a sign of poor performance)?

To the end, the following recommendations are being made: Both supervisors and

graduate assistants participate in a division-sponsored workshop on effective supervision based upon the concepts presented in this document. The outcomes of the workshop can be that the supervisor and supervisee pairs could begin to build rapport and mold their unique relationship while learning about synergistic supervision. Encourage supervisors and graduate assistants to both read this document, sit together to discuss its content, and create a plan for their supervisory experience. Educate graduate assistants about being personally responsible and accountable for their professional development, and encourage them to be proactive and engaged in their supervisory relationships, present and future. Make a commitment to utilizing the synergistic approach to supervision and acknowledge the importance of quality supervision.

Self -Assessment Questions

1 How synergistic supervision improves the performance of students and teachers.

2 Write an essay on supervision as a growth oriented activity.

Activity

Participants need to have clear understanding about the expectations each has of the other. The starting point for building expectations is through goal setting and creating statements of expectations both of which should be reviewed and evaluated frequently. Try this phase with the help of your colleagues and prepare a document to present to your teacher.

Individual goal setting should include both short and long term personal and professional goals, which the staff member should discuss with the supervisor. This goal setting and goal review process should be completed outside of the performance appraisal process.

Recommended Readings

Arminio, J. & Creamer. D. G. (2001). What Supervisors say about Quality Supervision?

College Student Affairs Journal.

Barham, J. D. & Winston, R.B. (2006). Supervision of New Professionals in Student Affairs: Assessing and Addressing Needs. The College Student Affairs Journal.

Cilente, K. G., Skinner Jackson. J, Kennedy, D. & Sloan, T. (2006). Report on the New Professional Needs Study. Washington, D. C.: American College Personnel Association.

Harned, P. J. & Murphy, M.C. (1998). Creating a Culture of Development for the New Professional. New Directions for Student Services.

Saunders, S. Cooper, D. L. Winston, R. B. & Chernow, E. (2000). Supervising Staff in Student Affairs: Exploration of the Synergistic Approach. Journal of College Student Development.

Schuh, J. H. & Carlisle, W. (1991). Supervision and Evaluation: Selected Topics for Emerging Professionals. Administration and Leadership in Student Affairs: Actualizing Student Development in Higher Education.

M, R. Arminio, J. L. (2012). Synergistic Supervision: A Confirmed Key to Retaining Entry-level Student Affairs Professionals. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice.

Tull, A. (2006). Synergistic Supervision, Job Satisfaction, and Intention to Turnover of New Professionals in Student Affairs. Journal of College Student Development.

Winston, R. B. & Creamer, D. G. (1997). Improving Staffing Practices in Student Affairs. San Francisco Josei-Bass Inc.

Winston, R. B. Hirt J. B. (2003). Activating Synergistic Supervision Approaches: Practical Suggestions.

Winston, S. A. Saunders. & D. L. Cooper (2004). Supervising New Professionals in Student Affairs: A Guide for Practitioners. NY: Brunner-Routledge.

Unit–8

SUPERVISING SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

Compiled by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Reviewed by: Dr. Afshan Huma

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………. 109

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………. 109

Supervising Physical Infrastructure…………………………………………………….. 110
Supervising Administrative Practices………………………………………………….. 111
Supervising Resource Management……………………………………………………. 112
Supervising Teaching and Learning……………………………………………………. 114
Supervising School Environment……………………………………………………….. 117
Self-Assessment Questions……………………………………………………………….. 121
Activity………………………………………………………………………………………….. 121
Recommended Readings………………………………………………………………….. 122

INTRODUCTION

Education has become a major undertaking of governments around the world and school are playing an important role in development of human capital. By keeping in mind the school background, this unit describes the supervising physical infrastructure, supervising administrative practices, supervising resource management, supervising teaching and learning and supervising school environment.

OBJECTIVES

So far as the learning outcomes are concerned. We believe that by the end of this course, the successful student will be able to:

To analyze the supervisory process of school’s the physical infrastructure g. building, furniture, transport etc.
To understand the supervisory administrative
To get the know-how of supervising School’s resource management, teaching and learning and ambiance of the school.

Supervising Physical Infrastructure

Schools directly or indirectly touch on the life of almost everyone in modern society, whether as a student, parent, teacher, employer or consumer of goods and services produced by school leavers. All over the world, schools are basically established to provide the quality of education that will ensure national transformation. Secondary schools in particular are expected to prepare students for useful living in society and for coping with the demand for higher education. In order to make it possible for schools to realize the goals for which they have been established, education has become a major undertaking of governments around the world. In developing countries like Pakistan, secondary schools account for a substantial proportion of public and private expenditure as is evidenced by the financial, human and physical inputs provided to make it possible for secondary schools to realize the goal for which they have been established.

School is basically a social systems that have input process output cycles. Basic inputs in schools consist of financial, human and material resources. Human inputs comprise of the students, teachers, school managers and supporting staff while physical inputs include buildings.

Lack of application of punitive measures or other sanctions against staff who are found wanting in the discharge of their maintenance operations. This is to discourage deliberate negligence of duty.

Lack of rewarding hardworking staff who showed exceptional commitment on performance of school plant maintenance activities; this equally discourages them from putting extra efforts.

Lack of adequate enlightenment programs to educate staff on the need to embrace maintenance culture. This is coupled with lack of interest and enthusiasm by both school administrators and staff towards school plant maintenance.

In order to entrench maintenance culture and ensure efficient performance of school plant maintenance activities, the following strategies are hereby recommended:

Adequate tools should be provided to make it possible and easier to perform various tasks on school plant maintenance.
Adequate finances should be provided to purchase necessary tools required

for effective execution of maintenance operations. Money is also needed to pay for some services and labour rendered by hired staff. Apart from the need for increased budgetary allocation to education, school administrators need to prudentl y managetheir limited funds and explore other sources of funding to ensure sustainable school plant operations.

There should be regular inspection of school facilities so as to detect damaged

equipment, furniture or infrastructure for prompt repairs.

There should be regular supervision of staff to ensure that they perform their school plant maintenance duties in line with their schedules of duties.
There should be a clearly spelt out schedules of duties to guide staff in the discharge of their responsibilities.
The school head should delegate authority to staff and to committee that need to be

in charge of ensuring the performance of school plant maintenance activities

Staff who are deliberately negligent of their duties should be sanctioned and appropriately
Hardworking staff should be rewarded and commended for their diligence and
Regular workshops, seminars and conferences should be organized to enlighten

staff on the need for school plant maintenance culture.

Hence, School facilities constitute a very critical input for the maintenance of objectives of secondary education in Pakistan. There is a serious need to ensure that the school plant entrusted to school administrators is properly maintained to ensure a clean and conducive environment for effective teaching and learning. Both the government and stakeholders must join hands to ensure the sustenance of school plant maintenance operations in secondary schools here.

Supervising Administrative Practices

Administrators should determine if teachers are using the numerous formative and summative diagnostic processes available to assist in planning meaningful instruction. Formative measures include ongoing teacher monitoring of student progress during the lessons, practice sessions, and on daily assignments. Measures administered periodically like criterion-referenced tests, grade level examinations, or placement tests that are teacher-made or part of district-adopted material, also provide helpful information on the status of student learning as instruction progresses.

Total measures like minimum competency examinations, district mastery tests, the Assessment Program examinations, and standardized tests provide a different perspective from the ongoing formative measures. This type of data enables the teacher to evaluate the long-term retention rate of their students and to compare student learning on a regional, state, or national basis.

The administrators should verify that teachers are preparing and maintaining adequate and accurate records of student progress. This will include the regular and systematic recording of meaningful data regarding student progress on specific concepts and skills related to the standards for each subject for the grade level or course they are teaching. Once students’ success levels have been identified from the records, the teacher should use the information to plan instruction and any necessary remediation and enrichment. By utilizing ongoing information on achievement, teachers can maintain consistent and challenging expectations for all students. Students and parents should be informed of the

students’ progress toward achieving district goals and objectives through comments on individual work, progress reports, conferencing, report cards, and other measures. Students should be encouraged to participate in self-assessment as a way of motivating students to improve academic achievement.

When a profession deals with people, cause-and-effect relationships are never identified as certainties, only as possibilities. Therefore, there are no certainties in teaching. It is a situational process requiring constant decision-making which, when properly implemented, increases the probability of learning. Research on teacher effectiveness has been intensified in the last two decades. The results have helped identify an instructional process that provides a solid and basic framework for planning instruction which is helpful in guiding the administrator in what to look for when visiting a classroom. These steps include planning, preparing, presenting the lesson, monitoring student progress, and conducting practice sessions.

Formulating a well-defined objective of the lesson is a critical first step as it provides the direction and framework for the decisions which will follow. The objective should describe the specific content to be learned and the observable behavior the student will exhibit to demonstrate that learning has occurred. No matter how expertly the objectives are stated, objectives facilitate learning only if they are appropriate to the academic achievement of students. A well-written objective includes specific information on what is to be included in the lesson and what is not. This specifically expedites the next step, which is the identification of sub-skills or sub-objectives. A task analysis of each of the sub-objectives enables the teacher to sequence them in order of difficulty to provide a logical sequence to the lesson.

Administrators will know if the appropriate planning for instruction has taken place when the teacher is able to design a lesson that achieves the objective. This means everything the teacher and students do during the lesson is related to the objective. Birdwalking is a term coined by Madeline Hunter that refers to the inability of a teacher to focus on the objective of the lesson (Gentile, 1987). Instead, the teacher birdwalks, pecking at interesting ideas with what seems to be worthwhile or informative digressions, distracting the students’ thinking processes and leaving the students confused about the topic of the lesson. Avoiding bird-walking does not mean there can never be spontaneity. The decision to adjust a lesson must be a conscious one where the advantage of postponing or interrupting the lesson is weighed against the disadvantage of interrupting the logic of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).

Supervising Resource Management

World over, a dynamic system of supervision has become recognized as a cornerstone of a sound education system. An education system, of which human resource management (HRM) is a part, will not be able to rise above the level of its supervisors. The need to invest in supervision, therefore, cannot be underestimated. Supervision is the process of

guiding and directing efforts of staff towards achieving efficiency and effectiveness in education.

Supervision practices, on the other hand, are ways through which supervisors go about their work in the process of guiding teachers and head teachers to improve the quality of education provision. These practices consist of pre supervision arrangements, frequency and duration of inspection, dissemination of findings. Supervision practices were categorized as either less supportive or more supportive.

Supervision practices are said to be more supportive if they are well planned, frequently and adequately done, findings expeditiously disseminated, and follow up on recommendations regularly made.

Otherwise they are considered less supportive and likely to have a bearing on HRM efficiency. HRM efficiency is the creation of motivating and satisfying conditions that make possible greater self-direction by staff leading to achievement of organizational objectives at an optimal cost.

HRM efficiency is considered to include efficiency in induction, deployment, performance appraisal, training and development and measured at three levels e.g. low, moderate and high.

HRM efficiency level is considered high if teachers are adequately inducted, appropriately deployed, systematically appraised and provided with opportunities for training and development; otherwise it is low. High HRM efficiency levels can be determinants of productivity in the education sector. Evidence regarding the relationship between supervision practices and HRM efficiency is scanty, and most arguments resort to anecdotal evidence or have questionable methodologies. Considering this relationship, researchers and other scholars do not come to a convergent view. This implies that more supportive supervision practices may not necessarily result in better HRM practices. This indicates that there is still a question about whether supervision practices are closely correlated with HRM efficiency.

There is a significant differences among supervisors, head teachers and teachers concerning their perceptions of supervision practices. The majority of teachers and head teachers reported that supervision practices were more supportive as opposed to more supervisors reporting less supportive practices. It shows lack of collaboration among supervisors, teachers and head teachers during instructional supervision. The difference in perception could be explained by the level of understanding of the facets of supervision and what actually constitutes supportive supervision practices. Inspectors are likely to have an in-depth understanding of supervision practices than head teachers and teachers, and are therefore more aware of the nature of supervision practices and the factors that affect them. As such, they are likely to rate supervision practices differently from teachers and head teachers. On the other hand, head teachers perceptions of

supervision practices were close to those of supervisors probably because of much closer links with supervisors and are considered as first supervisors.

Supervising Teaching and Learning

Through the effective supervision of teaching and learning, administrators can reinforce and enhance school improvements that will contribute to improve student learning. By skillfully analyzing performance and appropriate data, administrators can provide meaningful feedback and direction to teachers that can have a profound effect on the learning that occurs in each classroom. Because student learning is the primary function of the schools, the effective supervision of instruction is one of the most critical functions of the administrator. If schools are to provide equal access to quality educational programs for all students, administrators must hold teachers accountable for providing an appropriate and well-planned program. These programs include a variety of teaching strategies designed to meet the diverse needs of all students in our complex society.

To enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators must be skilled in these areas: (a) what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and analyze classroom observation information and other data, and (c) how to translate the results of observations and the summary of data into meaningful conference feedback that guides and encourages teachers to improve instruction. Here, evaluation and assessment of certificated employee competency are required in four areas.

These include:

The progress of pupils toward the district-adopted standards
The instructional strategies and techniques utilized by the teacher
The teacher’s adherence to curricular objectives.
The establishment and maintenance of a suitable learning

The ability to assess teacher competence in the four areas outlined is achieving educational excellence and a positive learning experience for all students.

To assess student progress toward the established district standards and to facilitate the planning of various types of instruction, administration should ensure that teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and appropriate sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching. This could include data regarding students’ backgrounds, academic levels, and interests, as well as other data from student records to ascertain academic needs and to facilitate planning appropriate initial learning. It is important for the administration to note that information regarding students and their families is used by the staff for professional purposes only and is kept confidential as a matter of professional ethics.

The beginning of each lesson provides the challenge of how to change the focus of students’ attention from previous classes or discussions with friends to the objective of the lesson.

Research indicates that the learning of facts is greatly facilitated when memories of organized principles and prerequisite concepts related to the lesson are reviewed at the beginning of the lesson. During the opening, it is important for students to know the direction of the instruction, the relevance of what they are learning, and to have a sense of continuity. Students are often not able to see the relationship between today’s work and the work from yesterday. Sharing the objective of the lesson informally with students would include teacher statements such as “what we are going to do today” and “the reason we are studying this concept.”

Presenting the lesson: The body of the lesson includes the presentation of information; explanation-demonstration stage of the lesson. To implement this phase of the lesson, administrators should note that teachers have a wide variety of different styles and models of teaching from which to choose. The larger the number of alternative teaching styles teachers are comfortable utilizing, the more likely they will select techniques that match the desired objectives, learning styles, and academic levels of their students. To determine if the best teaching strategy was selected administrators should determine if the teacher achieved the objective.

While well over a hundred instructional strategies have been identified, there are some attributes common to all strategies (Joyce & Weil, 1986). Classroom observers should be aware that each strategy has a set of activities with a distinct purpose and role for the teacher and students. Each strategy has a logical sequence which is necessary if students are to accomplish the objective of the lesson. Therefore, the selection of an instructional strategy is a complex task because there are numerous effective strategies that could be used, depending on the instructional goal. Joyce and Weil (1986) drew from a wide range of teaching studies to organize the methods of instruction into four major categories which they refer to as families of instruction.

It is clear that good teaching requires diagnosing student progress during the lesson and adjusting instruction. Periodic and formal assessments of student learning through a mid- term or final examination may be helpful in formulating grades, but are not frequent enough to enable the teacher to adjust the teaching to correct for misconceptions. When observing a lesson, administrators should note points in the lesson where teachers should monitor instruction as it progresses to enable them to immediately respond to students’ misunderstandings and insure that all students are learning the material. Checking for understanding can be done in large groups by having all of the students signal the response at the same time to the same question. This can be done with the use of their fingers to signal multiple choice answers 1, 2, or 3, the first letter of a word, or thumbs up or down to indicate true or false (Hunter, 1982). Other techniques for group signaling include the use of individual chalkboards, ceramic tiles, or laminated cards on which students record their responses with a grease pencil or crayon and flash the answer. A group choral response can also be used. Students’ understanding can also be checked through the use of brief written responses, or mini-diagnostic tests. As students are completing the quick quiz the teacher walks around the room monitoring the approach the students are using to solve the

problems as well as their answers, and determines if adjustment in teaching needs to be made. Another method would be a pair share where students take turns telling each other the answers to two different questions related to the same objective while the teacher monitors. Although some measures may not indicate specifically which students are confused, they do provide the teacher with the information needed to determine if the direction or pace of the lesson needs to be adjusted.

Teachers who monitor progress as part of their teaching have all students perform some observable behavior congruent with the objective of the lesson while they check the behavior. They analyze the correctness and completeness of the responses and determine if it is necessary to reteach certain segments of the lesson before they move on. Once this is completed they proceed to the next concept–teaching, re-teaching if necessary, and providing the necessary practice.

Conducting Practice Session: Once students have an adequate level of understanding, research concludes that it is extremely important that students be given the opportunity to practice the new skill and its application. In the initial phase, practice should be conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher. Hunter refers to the process as guided practice. The teacher moves about the room providing support, encouragement, praise, individual assistance, and re-teaching. It can be particularly effective during this portion of the lesson if the teacher utilizes cooperative learning groups or heterogeneous grouping strategies to form practice groups. This provides an opportunity for peer- tutoring while the teacher circulates among the groups and keeps them on task while monitoring their level of understanding.

It is important to remember that individuals are only able to assimilate a certain amount of information before it needs to be organized. Otherwise, new learning interferes with the old and produces confusion. For longer or more complicated lessons it may be critical to stop and get closure at several points throughout the lesson as well as at the end. Students who actively participate in the process are able to reorganize the material and achieve greater retention and clarity of the information.

Prior to allowing the students time for independent practice, the use of summary or review statements helps students put the information into perspective and identify the key points. It is also helpful if the teacher identifies how it will relate to the lesson planned for the following day. Providing closure, at any point in the lesson, provides students with the opportunity to consolidate and organize what they have learned.

After providing adequate explanation and practice in a monitored setting, students should be provided the opportunity to practice the new skill independently. To insure that this practice session is positive and productive, the material must relate directly to the lesson just mastered.

Adherence to Curricular Objectives: The third area supervisors are required to evaluate and assess is the teacher’s ability to adhere to curricular objectives. To comply with this requirement of SB 813, administrators should assure that teachers are utilizing state frameworks, district curriculum guides, scope and sequence charts, and course outlines to assist them in planning instruction. Lesson plans should have a clearly defined objective that is appropriate to the class learning level and consistent with established district, school, department, or grade level curriculum standards for expected achievement. Further, plans should incorporate the needs, interests, and special talents of students in the class and include enrichment or acceleration activities for students who complete basic tasks early. Activities in the lesson should revolve around the acquisition of new learning.

Planning should include a time line so the teacher can monitor the pace of instruction to insure that the intended curricular objectives are taught and mastered in the allocated time. Administrators should verify that a variety of ongoing assessment measures are being utilized by the teacher to monitor achievement of intended objectives. Information from these measures should be used to make adjustments to the pace, objectives, or sequence when necessary. Teachers should utilize district-adopted materials and appropriate supplemental materials to meet individual student’s academic needs and learning styles.

Teachers should be encouraged by administrators to participate in recommending texts and supplementary materials and developing curriculum so they can utilize their knowledge of students’ skills, needs, and interests in selecting a product that will more closely meet the needs of students in the school or grade level.

Supervising School Environment

Supervisor verify that teachers establish and maintain a suitable learning environment. Therefore, each teacher should develop and implement clear classroom routines and appropriate standards at the beginning of each school year to insure the health, safety, and welfare of their students. This includes maintaining a clean, safe, and orderly learning environment that includes establishment of good work habits and discipline. Teachers should post and communicate the classroom standards and procedures as well as the consequences for misbehavior with students and their parents. Students should show evidence of respect for the rules in the classroom and on the campus. Teachers should strive to be fair, firm, and consistent as they maintain effective student control in the classroom and uphold the rules throughout the school. Teachers should refer students to support staff when necessary to maintain the appropriate learning environment.

Administrators should ensure that appropriate behavior is supported with regular and ongoing recognition and reinforcement activities. Mutual respect among pupils, teachers, and staff should be evident on campus and in classrooms. Everyone should work together

cooperatively, communicate with sensitivity, and utilize appropriate language. Administrators and teachers should serve as role models for students in developing self- control, a sense of responsibility, and attitudes of tolerance and sensitivity. Emergency procedures should be reviewed with students and practiced regularly. In addition, administrators should verify that materials and supplies that will be needed in an emergency, including exit routes and student information, are readily available.

Teachers should adjust the heating, lighting, and ventilation to promote comfort. The classroom arrangement should make good use of space, foster good study habits, and enable students to see and hear instruction. The classroom should have attractive and appropriate visuals and decorations that do not distract from learning.

Good home-school relationships help create a positive learning environment and can be enhanced by regular communication. This can include information on what is to be taught as well as the methods and materials that will be used to achieve the objectives. Evaluators should check to see that systems have been established to communicate with parents on a regular basis regarding student progress. Parents should have opportunities for classroom visitations as well as parent conferences. Teachers should make every effort to promptly return parents’ phone calls.

Here are few Supervision Strategies e.g. Supervision of instruction must be built on the observer’s thorough understanding and in-depth knowledge of instructional theory, not on a check list of what should be in a lesson.

Gathering data: Three main sources of information help identify a teacher’s competency include: observations, interviews, and documents. Observations should include walk- through conducted on at least a weekly basis. These brief visits, lasting only a minute or two, provide a quick look at teacher performance and classroom environmental factors. Walk-through are helpful in identifying ongoing patterns of behavior. An informal observation is an unannounced visit lasting more than 10 minutes during which the teacher’s behaviors or classroom factors may be observed to document consistent trends or patterns of behavior. The informal observation can be followed by a written summary or conference with the teacher. A formal observation is an announced visit lasting an agreed-upon amount of time. During the observation, the administrator records what was said by the teacher and the students. The formal observation also includes a pre- and post- conference and a written summary. The summary includes a description of the conference, observation, observer’s judgments, and agreements or directions for changes in teacher behaviors, activities, or classroom environment. A peer observation is agreed upon by the teacher and peer and can be used to verify a trend or pattern of behavior perceived by the evaluator.

Interviews are also a helpful source of obtaining information. They can include discussions with students to verify perceptions. At times, parents request a conference to discuss their perceptions. In addition, other members of the administrative team or

classified employees who are assigned to work in the classroom can be interviewed to provide their perceptions.

The review of various types of documents can be helpful in identifying trends or behaviors. These include written parent and student letters or complaint forms. Individual pieces of students’ work, folders, or portfolio assessments which contain a number of samples of students’ work also provide helpful information on their achievement.

Documents should include both formative (ongoing assessment measures) and summative measures (culminating assessment) including homework, practice exercises completed in class, examinations, and student projects.

Teacher Conference: Conferences throughout the year provide a means to communicate the evaluation of the teacher’s performance. Decisions shared during the conference are based upon the data collected through observations, review of documents, and interviews that relate to the assessment and evaluation of the teacher’s ability to meet the requirements adopted by the local district governing board. The conference should provide the teacher with the means to change unsatisfactory behavior or options for enhancement of performance. The conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher’s knowledge and concepts and reinforce his or her understanding of the missions of the school. The pre-conference is held before a formal observation and provides the administrator with the opportunity to obtain as much information about the upcoming observation as possible.

Post-conferences can be collaborative, guided, or directive in nature. Each type of conference is planned by the supervising administrator to achieve a different goal. A collaborative conference is effective when the teacher is able to identify problem areas, suggest alternatives, develop a plan, and is ready and willing to grow professionally, needing little support. This conference is designed to conclude with mutually determined follow-up activities that will enhance the teacher’s capabilities. The conference begins with the teacher presenting an overview and analysis of the lesson that was observed. The teacher identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson while the administrator listens to the teacher’s perceptions. The administrator then verifies the teacher’s perceptions and offers his or her own opinions. After this mutual exchange, possible activities for the next steps are discussed and the conference concludes with agreement on a final plan.

A guided conference is effective for teachers who have difficulty identifying problem areas and alternatives to current practices and need support to carry out the action plan. In addition, the guided conference is effective with a teacher who has little or no difficulty identifying areas that need improvement but is unwilling or not committed to making the necessary changes. During a guided conference it is important that the principal provides

prompts to encourage the teacher’s thinking, to allow the teacher freedom to explore various possibilities, and to enable the teacher to make a commitment.

Planning the Conference: In preparation for the conference, the administrator will need to review the data and identify the strengths and areas of concern. The administrator should select only one or two behavioral changes and the professional growth activity or activities that will have the greatest effect on the learning for the largest number of students. These selected areas will be the focus or objective of the conference. It will be necessary to identify specific aspects of the data collected that support the need for growth in these areas. It is helpful to formulate questions before the conference that will help the teacher focus on these issues or clarify aspects of the lesson for the administrator. The administrator should identify possible resources and personnel that could assist in a follow-up plan prior to the conference. The recommendations considered should be doable and reasonable based on the teacher’s readiness and the time available. The administrator should select the type of conference collaborative, guided, or directive) and prepare a conference outline. A good conference should last 30-40 minutes. Longer sessions become an ordeal for both the teacher and the administrator. It is the administrator’s responsibility to have his or her thoughts well-organized and to keep the conference on task so it can be completed in a timely manner.

During the conference, the teacher and/or administrator should cite purpose, strengths, and areas of concern with reference to supporting data. A follow-up plan with the desired specific outcome, activities, and a summary of decisions should be developed.

The evaluation conference should be held at the close of the evaluation period or at the end of the year. The purpose of the conference is to communicate the teacher’s rating based upon the SB 813 performance criteria adopted by the district and should include any commendations for exemplary performance. Additionally, the conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher’s thinking and develop means to strengthen performance. The conference provides yet another forum to communicate and clarify the school’s missions, goals, and values. The administrator prepares for the evaluation conference in much the same manner as other conferences. The administrator should review all of the data collected to-date, including conference memoranda and data prepared during the evaluation period. He or she should determine the teacher’s ratings, commendations, and recommendations, then prepare the evaluation forms. In addition, the administrator should identify the objectives that will have the greatest effect on student learning, recommendations for improvement, methods of improvement and support, and a reasonable time line. The administrator should select the type of conference (collaborative, guided, or directive) and formulate questions that help guide the staff to review specific areas of performance.

Self-Assessment Questions

1 Make a list of adjectives that describe the characteristics of an effective school supervisor. Identify any items that would not apply to an administrator. Why not?

2 What are the five most important skills a supervisor must possess to improve the quality and diversity of instruction in the school?

3 List questions that could be asked in a pre-observation conference to obtain a clear idea of what is planned for the lesson you will observe. What questions could be used in the post-conference to encourage teachers to discuss portions of the lesson that did not achieve the desired outcomes?

4 Which strategies can supervisors use to help teachers view evaluation as a way of improving instructional opportunities for students?

Activity

Activity 1

Interview two teachers to determine what processes and behaviors displayed by their supervisors are most effective in helping them improve their teaching. Summarize the interview, describe the differences and similarities in the two viewpoints. Conclude with your reactions.

Activity 2

Observe a lesson. Submit your notes, or script, from the observation as well as the objectives you would have selected for a conference with the teacher.

Suggested Readings

Acheson, K., & Gall, M. (1987). Techniques in the Clinical Supervision of Teachers (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Beach, D., & Reinhartz, J. (1989). Supervision: Focus on Instruction. New York: Harper & Row.

Glickman, C. D. (1985). Supervision of Instruction: A Developmental Approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Joyce, B. (Ed.). (1990). Changing School Culture through Staff Decisions Development.

Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Smith, W., & Andrews, R. (1989). Instructional Leadership: How Principals Make a Difference. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Stanley, S., & Popham, J. (1990). Teacher Evaluation: Six Prescriptions for Success. Zumwalt, K. (Ed.). (1986). Improving Teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Unit–9

THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

Compiled by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Hamid Ali Nadeem Reviewed by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………. 125

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………. 125

Developing Accounting and Auditing Systems…………………………………….. 128
Ubiquitous Supervision……………………………………………………………………. 131
Creating Web Tools for Monitoring and Evaluation………………………………. 132
Online Reporting and Dissemination of Information…………………………….. 134
Self-Assessment Questions……………………………………………………………….. 136

INTRODUCTION

This unit comprises of developing Accounting and Auditing Systems, Ubiquitous Supervision, Creating web tools for monitoring and evaluation, online reporting and dissemination of information.

OBJECTIVES

So far as the learning outcomes are concerned, we believe that by the end of this course, the successful student will be able to:

To understand the roles and functions of supervisors

To gain a sound grasp of the roles supervision services play, the conflicts these entail, and, as a result, the aims of recent reforms.

To analyze the load of responsibilities, dispersion of tasks; and how it bear relationship to the core functions of a

To assess how the supervise, liaise and hold conferences and other activities.

In today’s world information and communication technology has become vital instrument for all the fields of life. This is the fact that using ICT in the field of administration and supervision accelerate the improvement process. It is proven that use of ICT enhance the effectiveness, efficiency and productivity of administration and management. It provided proactive environment to create, access, store, transmit and manipulate different types of information. A large number of information and data can be stored in computers as compare to physical document files. Physical documents demands a lot of space as compare to electronic files. Technology has become more effective for teaching and learning as well as for administration and supervision by teachers, heads and administrative teams.

Class teacher also has the responsibility of administration besides teaching. They keep the record of curricular and co-curricular activities. Teacher administrator also records pupils’ evaluation and provide learning material in the form of notes to students. Teacher administrator can enhance high productivity and efficiency by using the technology for all these purposes. He can record activities in systematic and varied form with the help of computer technology. Teacher also can provide notes to students through e-mail and internet.

School heads should also have computer skill to fulfill his administration and managerial tasks. Head as administrator can improve his managements and administration ability by applying technology in providing reports, instructions, announcements, letters, registration, evaluations and supervision.

Administration staff can also enhance their skills by applying technology in their routing tasks. Technology can make their responsibilities faster, excellent and accurate. They can develop tools for supervision and evaluation, keep records, maintain information, process documents, collect data, establish reports, and audit finance by using ICT.

In the world, a large number of ICT applications, tools, and software are using for the purpose of educational administration and management. Technology makes the administration and management process easier, faster, and cheaper. Different projectors, laptops, computers, multimedia, scanners, photocopy machines, and cameras are examples of technological equipment. There is also range of software and databases which are used by these technologies to accelerate the managerial process. The effectiveness of administrators and managers largely depends upon the efficient use of these technologies.

Some Latest Technologies

Computers

Computers were originally used by scientists for calculating numbers, and have gradually become useful in offices and industries. In recent times, simplified models that can be used by almost everybody has become common in schools and homes for accomplishing many varied tasks and applications. Computers are now commonly put to: writing letters, and reports, printing books, newspapers, and magazines, drawing pictures and diagrams, doing statistics, mathematics and handling financial records, controlling traffic lights, flying aero-planes, making and playing music and video, sending messages anywhere in the world.

Internet

The Internet is a global collection of many types of computers and computer networks that are linked together. It is increasingly becoming the solution to many information, problems, information exchange, and marketing. Internet as a mixture of many services with the two most commonly used being electronic mail (short e-mail) and the World Wide Web (www). It plays a significant role in education, health, political processes, agriculture, economy, businesses and newsgroups. Woherem (2000) states that with Internet connectivity, one can do business all over the world without physical contact with the buyer or the need for a business intermediary.

E-mail

Electronic mail (e-mail) is the exchange of text messages and computer files transmitted via communications networks such as the Internet. The e-mail system as the equivalent of postal mailing services, with the biggest difference being the time and cost involved. And not only written data, but all sorts of information in the form of video, audio, or photographs, can be sent via e-mail. E-mail is an increasing popular method of communication, especially in the workplace.

Mobile Phones

Mobile phones is a telephone system that can move or be moved easily and quickly from place to place. Mobile phones were once the tool of rich and busy executives who could afford both the luxury. Mobile phones are now the ICT that is reshaping and revolutionizing the communications globally. Its impact on the economic activities of nations, businesses, and small entrepreneurs is phenomenal. The availability of this new technology has been reshaping the material basis of the society as well as bringing about a profound restructuring of economic, political, and cultural relations among states.

Fax Machine

Tele facsimile systems permit the transaction of images (photos, printed images, maps, drawings) and their reproduction on paper at a remote receiver. Facsimile (fax) is not a new service; however, advances in digital imaging technology and microelectronics have caused a sharp drop in prices with a significant increase in capacities. Long distance copying might be an appropriate nickname for this telecommunication process. Any document, whether it is handwritten, contains pictures, diagrams, graphs, charts or typed text can be transmitted at a great speed for relatively low cost. The fax system is widely available; most organizations have at least one fax machine.

In this unit, we will study about the use of ICT in educational administration and management.

Developing Accounting and Auditing Systems

Over the centuries, traditional ways were used to keep accounts. Calculators, pen and set of paper books were the basic ingredients of this system. But in today’s changing world and computerization era, there seems no need to have to take these manual ways. Computer system perform these basic tasks in a flash and keep up to date and increase efficiency and accuracy that eventually lead to saving time and money.

ICT is the basic ingredient for efficient financial management. Nowadays traditional accounting and audit system has been replaced into technology based accounting and audit system. Astonishing progress in information technology based on the use of computers and electronic communication systems has emerged the need of development and application of ICT based accounting and audit system in the field of educational management and administration. Latest technology based accounting information systems are designed to provide the integration of knowledge and sets of skills to face new challenges and opportunities in the world of information technology and to deal with them.

Financial management and audit are the basic components of every organization including education. So, it is essential task for educational administrators and mangers to keep the record correct and up-to-date. To meet the challenges of the time and to make the system efficient and faster it is necessary for administrators and managers to develop computer based accounting and auditing system. Computers are used in accounting for storing and analyzing financial data, automation, accuracy, data access and reliability.

Computerized accounting systems are software programs that are stored on a company’s computer, network server, or remotely accessed via the Internet. Computerized accounting systems allow to set up income and expense accounts, such as rental or sales income, salaries, advertising expenses, and material costs. They also can be used to manage bank accounts, pay bills, and prepare budgets. Depending upon the program, some accounting systems also allow you to prepare tax documents, handle payroll, and manage project costing.

Computer based accounting and audit system normally includes using basic office productivity software such as spreadsheet, word processors and text editing programs and more advanced software packages involves use statistical analysis and business intelligence tools. It is helpful for analyzing large amount of data as compare to traditional system. Auditors can extract every transaction which performed during the period reviewed and can test data to determine any problem. Computerized accounting and auditing system is now become a basic necessity and no longer a luxury for administrators and managers. Computerized auditing system facilitate more granular analysis of data and help to determine the accuracy of the information.

Application of Technology in Accounting

To Keep Accounting Record of Big Company is Possible

It is so easy to keep unlimited accounting records without any risk of forgetting. There is variety of programs used for this purpose.

Separate Payroll Accounting is Possible

We all know top costly expense is the salary of employees. So, it must be recorded separately. Computer can help in this. Anytime any edit regarding salary, name or any other adjustment in payroll is possible.

Automation of All Financial Accounts

Just go to any computerized account office. In its computer system, there are lots of financial statements and other accounting reports. How can organization fastly send its financial statements to CA office for audit. Answer is very simple. Everything has connected with computer. If accountant will pass voucher entries, financial accounts will automatically be created by computer software.

Graphic Presentation of Accounting Results

Computer can be used for graphic presentation of accounting results. You can see the sale trend graphs, charts and diagrams. Not only sale trend but you can see anything in accounting area through graphic way. It will so easy and understandable instead of reading only manual financial results.

Updated Fastly

If there is any mistake, we can easily correct. All the accounts will automatically corrected. In manual accounting, it is not possible. There are lots of options which can help more fastly providing the updated accounting reports. For example, computer reminder system can send updated debtor balance to the customer.

Best Inventory Control

To record every small item in computer is so easy without keeping big inventory registers. By comparing computer records of inventory and actual inventory, anytime, we can check the difference and find the reason behind this difference.

In simple words, single computer has saved the cost of keeping hundred accounts clerks. Without any errors, computer can records millions of transactions.

Advantages of Computerized Accounting System

It can generate financial reports automatically at the end of financial year.
It eliminates paper work.

It makes accounting system easier, faster and

It provides Up-to-date
It provides motivation and quick
It gives accurate

It eliminate time and cost.

Computerized accounting and auditing systems have some disadvantages also. There require expertise, cost and extra software for its effectiveness.

Procedures for Computerized Auditing

Preparation for Computer Processing

After an organization to be audited by using computers is selected, the content of its operations as well as documents on computerized systems are to be examined.

The following are kinds of data to be obtained for examination:

types of computers in use as well as how they have been introduced,
types and contents of programs,
types, contents and formats of data files,
types, contents and formats of output,
procedure manuals describing operations (operation manuals and others),
organizational chart and staffing table of the computer department (manager,

SE, programmer, operator, key punch operator and others), and

Information on data in general (period of storing data, number of cases, recording modes and others).

Preparation of a Checklist

Based on the examination described in (i), lists of items to be inspected (checklist) are prepared. Lists may be prepared by picking out adequate items from existing general inspection manuals or by studying operation manuals of the organization under audit and deciding on items to be checked. Check lists are usually prepared by combination of these two methods. These check lists are classified into some groups and placed in the order of priority in order to facilitate preparation of audit programs.

Data Processing

There are some preparatory works to be done prior to actual processing by computer. External works include acquisition of data files to be processed, rental of computers and other supporting staff. Internal works include study on processing schedule, assignment of personnel, designing of input and output data formats, system designing as well as preparation of block diagrams and others, coding, card punching and debugging. These works may be completed one after another, or be carried out simultaneously. In order to well manage the progress of these works, a time schedule should be prepared beforehand to make sure that each work is completed as has been planned. Reports on the result of computerized audit processing will be analyzed and studied. Then an additional step such as preparation of letters of inquiry may be taken to bring the audit finding into the annual audit report, if necessary.

Audit Methods

Test-data method

Detailed examination of selected programs and reprocessing of selected data with these programs Use of general-purpose programs.

9.1.4. Advantages of Auditing Techniques

Examination of data is more rapid
Examination of data is more accurate
The only practical method of examining large amounts of data
Provides new opportunities to the auditor
Test large amount of data within flash of
It is cost
Comparison become easy and accessible.

Ubiquitous Supervision

Nowadays when importance was only given on improvement of teaching efficiency and professional growth of teacher as the main purpose of supervision. But now the concept of modern supervision has increased its jurisdiction being comprehensive in nature. Now ubiquitous supervision has getting importance in the field of education.

Ubiquitous means existing or being everywhere, especially at the same time. This term is used now in supervision to make it more reliable and valid.

Now supervision, encompasses the activities and programs for ensuring pupils educational development and teacher’s professional growth and improvement of the entire teaching learning process. In this light it can be clearly visualized that in the modern supervision the supervisor’s role encompasses the programs and activities beyond the traditional classroom visitation and in this way supervision is comprehensive in nature.

Real-time multimedia supervisory system is wide spread as an important care-support system that can be used for supervising children and elderly people from remote site. In this supervision groups are working to apply real-time multimedia watching system to ubiquitous computing environment. They also use video streaming delivered from the selected camera closest to the target people, by using physical position information of the target.

To achieve the goals of supervision, autonomous system construction is a promising mechanism. It is considering contexts of diverse system elements such as device status, network congestion, software availability, etc., as well as user’s location, in both sides.

To do this, the following three awareness’s are newly introduced:

Device Context Awareness: Supervisor effectively handles and coordinates multiple contexts of ubiquitous devices for provisioning of appropriate watching systems. The contexts involve not only user location, but also status of display/camera device, available resources of PCs and hand-held devices, available network access and bandwidth, etc.

User Context Awareness: It is closely associates with user’s requirement for watching tasks in the best possible way. For example, where a watcher requires the video streaming

so that he can vividly view the facial color of the watched person, high quality and zoomed picture should also be appeared in the nearest display.

Social Context Awareness: It is deeply considers social relationship between watched person and watchers, and keeps adequate privacy according to the situation. For instance, in case of normal situation, watched person’s privacy should be protected, however in case of emergency, the privacy level would moderately be lowered.

Advantages of Ubiquitous Supervision

Ubiquitous Supervision is Creative and Scientific in Nature:

Supervision is not an easy and simple task on part of supervisors. Rather it is a creative one. Because the purpose of modern supervision is to find out the best in teachers to manifest their innate or hidden talents, to stimulate the initiative, to encourage their originality and self-expression as it seeks the creative participation of all the teachers for bringing improvement in the educational system. For this he should have new ideas, resourcefulness and original thinking.

Ubiquitous Supervision is Positive and Constructive in Nature and Approach:

The nature of traditional inspection is negative and fault finding with the teacher whereas the nature of modern supervision is positive and not fault finding with the teacher. It means the modern supervisors are much more positive with the teachers in contrary to the traditional inspection system. They give good remarks, encouraging statements, appreciable comments on good work done by the teachers. And when they find faults with the teachers they show the ways and means to improve it again and again. For this they give demonstration of the lesson by adopting a particular method, how to use a teaching aid and how to complete the lesson in stipulated time. The supervisors have to encourage constructive and critical thinking among teachers and discourage flattering and biased things.

Training and Direction:

This type of supervision is appreciated in the modern educational system because of its positive and lasting impact on the teaching performance of teachers. To this supervision as students or pupils are the central points in the teaching learning process, the teaching programme should be in accordance to the needs of every child. For this the teachers should be given in-service training on the latest developed methods of teaching for different subjects. After that the supervision work should be done. This type of supervision develops a great deal of interest, self-confidence and creativity among teachers to teach their subjects.

Creating Web Tools for Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring: This type of evaluation is performed while a project is being implemented, with the aim of improving the project design and functioning while in action. This information then used to make some important changes in the project. Bamberger defines it as: “an internal project activity designed to provide constant feedback on the progress of a project, the problems it is facing, and the efficiency with which it is being implemented” (Bamberger 1)

Evaluation: An evaluation studies the outcome of a project (changes in income, housing quality, benefits distribution, cost-effectiveness, etc.) with the aim of informing the design of future projects. Bamberger describes evaluation as “mainly used to help in the selection and design of future projects. Evaluation studies can assess the extent to which the project produced the intended impacts (increases in income, better housing quality, etc.) and the distribution of the benefits between different groups, and can evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the project as compared with other options” (Bamberger 1).

Monitoring and evaluation need not be expensive or complicated, nor do they require specialists or grand calculations. The complexity and extent of the studies can be adapted to fit the program needs.

Effective Ways of Web Based Monitoring and Evaluation System

In web based monitoring and evaluation system the job of the project manager in this process is to point out those areas in need of monitoring or evaluation.

Evaluation and monitoring systems can be an effective way to:

Provide constant feedback on the extent to which the projects are achieving their
Identify potential problems at an early stage and propose possible
Monitor the accessibility of the project to all sectors of the target population.
Monitor the efficiency with which the different components of the project are being implemented and suggest
Evaluate the extent to which the project is able to achieve its general
Provide guidelines for the planning of future projects (Bamberger 4).

Improve project design. Use of project design tools such as the log frame (logical framework) results in systematic selection of indicators for monitoring project performance. The process of selecting indicators for monitoring is a test of the soundness of project objectives and can lead to improvements in project design.

Components of Monitoring and Evaluation

Good monitoring and evaluation design during project preparation is a much broader exercise than just the development of indicators. Good design has five components:

Clear statements of measurable objectives for the project and its components, for which indicators can be defined.
A structured set of indicators, covering outputs of goods and services generated by the project and their impact on beneficiaries.
Provisions for collecting data and managing project records so that the data required for indicators are compatible with existing statistics, and are available at reasonable cost.
Institutional arrangements for gathering, analyzing, and reporting of data, and for investing in capacity

Functions of the Web Based Accounting System Data Collection and Entry

Through web based monitoring and evaluation system data collection and enter initially by field level research assistants.

Accessibility

Accessibility of the system by the project and non – project partners (Public) through a login system with differential user rights.

Analysis: query building or automatic generation statistics at a click of the parameter.

Feedback and learning: Generated statistics and reports are reported back to the livestock/breeder groups to ensure reflection & decision making on project progress.

Online Reporting and Dissemination of Information

Information and Communication Technology is perceived to be a force to be reckoned with in the 21st century because it has caused and continues to cause major changes in the way we live. ICT has ignited and provoked radical and drastic changes that has affected and revolutionized information dissemination and reporting methods. Information and Communication Technology not only facilitated and enhanced the creation, processing, sharing and dissemination of information but also has changed the way of reporting. With the help of ICT information spread has become faster and cheaper.

Preparing reports and providing information are the major tasks of educational administrators and managers. They have to provide a variety of information and prepare reports of different activities. Educational administrators and managers can disseminate information and develop reports with the help of ICT. It has potential for reducing manual efforts and faster communication system. With the help of technology, information can be easily processed and framed in the forms of reports within flash of time. Reporting through ICT eliminates error and help in timely decisions. The term “dissemination” has become a familiar part of our vocabulary and it means “to disseminate” or spreading fast. It is what you are trying to achieve by doing it.

There are three different ways of dissemination;

Dissemination for Awareness

It can be assumed that, at the very least, you wish people to be aware of the work of your project. This may be useful for those target audiences that do not require a detailed knowledge of your work but it is helpful for them to be aware of your activities and outcomes. Creating such an awareness of your project’s work will help the “word of mouth” type dissemination and help you build an identity and profile within your community.

Dissemination for Understanding

There is a number of groups/audiences that you need to target directly with your dissemination. This is because you believe that they can benefit from you. It is important because these groups/audiences have a deeper understanding of your project’s work.

Dissemination for Action

“Action” refers to a change of practice resulting from the adoption of products, materials or approaches offered from you. These groups/audiences are those people that are in a position to “influence” and “bring about change” within their organizations. These groups/audiences need to be equipped with the right skills, knowledge and understanding in order to achieve real change.

Tools for Dissemination of Information

There are different types of media used to disseminate the information.

Mailing lists
Newsletters
Briefings
Conferences

E-mail
Reports
Workshops
One-to-one

Websites
Media

Mailing Lists

Having identified your target audiences, drawing together a mailing list of key people to receive materials and information. This may be a nominated contact in institutions, departments or individuals that have already expressed of your interest.

Some important issues required this are:

how many copies of brochures, publicity leaflets, materials will you send to the contacts on your mailing list?
how can you encourage your contacts to disseminate copies of materials more widely within their own institution/organization?

are there already established units/departments/organizations that would be willing to distribute information on your behalf?

Email/Mail Base Lists

The vast majority of people may become members of at least one mail base discussion list and these can be a very effective way of communicating with your target audiences. Depending on the nature of your group, you may be able to engage people in lively, active discussions around topics that you have introduced relating to the work of your project. Using the mail base list as a way of consulting your community is also another effective method of dissemination.

Newsletters

A short newsletter, term or phase can keep audience informed of progress and continue to stimulate interest. Although it is not necessary to spend a huge amount of money on producing such a newsletter, it is important that it is presented well and looks as professional as possible. It depends upon important issues and focus your newsletters around these issues.

Briefings

This is especially important when trying to reach stakeholders. Different methods can be adopted for briefings:

A digest of all the final reports, including each theme;
Nine briefing documents, related to the issues

Websites

A website allows easy access to information about the project and is easily updated. To use the disseminated information from the site, it is necessary to ensure that subordinates visit the site regularly from thereon. Website can be publicized via newsletter, briefings, brochures and mail base lists. Make sure your site merits return visits by keeping it updated and by flagging up interesting items on the home page so that the user can see immediately that there is something new for them to look at.

Reports

Reports can be a useful way to publicize and disseminate information. These can be produced either in hard copy or made available on your website.

Conferences

Conferences can be a very useful forum to consult with your target audiences in a face-to-face capacity and to address issues relevant to the work of your project. Most of the information and reports can present in a conference held related to it. Such an event can reap huge benefits but they can be costly and time-consuming to organize. So, it is important to budget accordingly and plan for the amount of staff time that will be needed to ensure the conference is well organized and successful.

Workshops

Workshops usually differ from conferences in that they are targeted at smaller groups of participants and involve a much higher and more active level of engagement. For example, a workshop might be organized as a “hands-on” session allowing participants to try out particular materials and approaches.

Before the event

Chose the most suitable conference for your project material
Decide on your planned outcomes
Decide on the best type of presentation
Decide on a title – short, sharp
Once you are accepted – prepare slide/rehearse
Prepare handouts and copy
Check travel/accommodation arrangements

One-to-One Communication

Although making one-to-one contact with people can be a heavy drain on resources for any project, earlier projects have found it very useful to target key people who you believe will enhance the chances of success of your project.

Print and Electronic Media

Another way of reporting and dissemination of information is media. Good news coverage, whether at a national or local level, can increase the profile of project greatly and reach a very wide body of people.

Causes for dissemination

These reasons are usually to increase the value of one or more of the following attributes of the enterprise shareholders.

Judgment

Information is often disseminated in the hope that individuals and entities in an organization will improve their knowledge base and subsequently make better judgments in future situations.

Awareness

Information is often disseminated in order to educate, explain or promote a concept, process or principle.

Response

Sometimes information is disseminated solely in the hope it will cause some feedback that might require further information to be generated or be used to validate something.

Collaboration

Information is often disseminated in order for a group of individuals to share knowledge and routes of communication.

Extra Reading Material

The Evolution of Technology for the Accounting Profession Article By: Agnes Ann Pepe April 2011

http://www.cpapracticeadvisor.com/article/10263076/the-evolution-of-technology-for- the-accounting-profession

Introduction

Every accountant knows that accounting is the language of business. That language has gone through many changes throughout the ages. But through all the changes accounting technology has always played a part in making the accountant’s job just a little easier. As our knowledge of technology increased so has the accountant’s ability to analyze statistical values. Technology advancements have enhanced the accountant’s ability to interpret data efficiently and effectively. He/she now has the ability to interpret the language of business with such ease that the accountant has become a corporation’s most trusted business advisor.

Accounting Changes through the Ages

We can start way back in the beginning with the invention of the abacus, used to keep track of calculations in business. Although we didn’t call it technology, we can go back centuries with several attempts to build adding machines to help an accountant with mathematical solutions. After the first working adding machine, came the invention of the calculator for information accuracy. As technology advanced so did the speed and proficiency of the accountant’s job. But even with adding machines and calculators the accountant still had to keep track of the businesses’ functions with paper entry. The process of identifying, measuring, and communicating financial information was documented in the form of paper records, columns of numbers and hand written statements (“How Technology,” n.d.). An accountant had to be a very methodical, detail oriented person.

Towards the end of the twentieth century the accounting profession began to take on a whole new look. Computers and accounting software has changed the industry completely. With programs such as Microsoft Excel an accountant now had an electronic spreadsheet. The need for adding machines, calculators, ledgers and pencils was eliminated. The job became less tedious with less of a margin for error. The core training for accountants which included the basic accounting, auditing and tax preparation was a thing of the past. With use of the computer an accountant can now perform statistical accounting or forecasting analysis with greater efficiency. Accounting technology has eliminated the number cruncher sitting behind a desk working on people’s taxes and has allowed the accountant to find new challenges with much more to offer then decades ago when they relied on an abacus for a calculating tool (Kruglinski, 2009; “How Technology,” n.d.).

E-Business, the Intranet and the Extranet

Today’s accounting professionals who understand the importance of the Internet will use the Internet for e-business. They use the Internet to execute major business

processes in the enterprise. Electronic business (e-business) allows the accounting firm to coordinate activities for internal management and combines the clients’ relationships with the use of digital networks. Enterprise applications can be used on a small internal network called the Intranet. The Intranet can distribute information to employees such as corporate policies, and programs. It centers on a portal which is a single point of access. Information can come from several different systems using a Web interface. They can feature such things as e-mail, internal documents such as the Code of Ethics, and a search tool. It is a good means of communication within an organization. Accounting professionals can also communicate outside the organization with Web technology using the creation of an Extranet. This allows the clients to have limited access, linking to a portion of the accounting firm’s Intranet to import and export files back and forth. Linking electronically increases efficiency and cuts down on travel costs ultimately reducing operational costs (Laudon, Laudon, 2006, p.59, 62,276-277).

Diversified Opportunities

Information became available to an accountant with the click of a mouse. This changed the nature of an accountant’s work. More doors were opening with the use of information technology. This diversified opportunities in the field of accounting. New specialized areas had developed. Business owners started looking to professional accountants for technology advice. Accountants became more knowledgeable about which financial systems worked best. Accountants were becoming the IT staff and trusted advisors. An accountant’s role was to help these businesses become more productive. Integrating the client’s technologies properly with the accountant’s systems made the practice more efficient when it came time for write-ups and reconciliation processes (“Searching for Technology,” 2009).

Input, Processing and Output

Not only does the client need to have proficient financial processes but the accountants themselves need software programs that keep track of clients accounting information with improved efficiency. Accountants work with systems programmers to develop a digital process that will organize their client’s history and all their documents. When the clients’ data is input into the computer program the processing cycle gives the computer instructions on how to process the clients’ data. This enables it to change the data into useful information. Output, transfers the processed information to the accountant (Laudon, et al, 2006, p.16). He/she can analyze the data and interpret the clients’ financial statements so as to increase the client’s success. All the clients’ records can be stored and organized on an accountant’s computer system. Rather than bringing a suitcase full of file folders to a client’s place of business for review, the documents can be carried on an encrypted laptop or organized on an encrypted portable storage device. The accountant has the client’s sensitive information protected but yet at his/her fingertips, ready to perform statistical, accounting or forecasting analysis. The program is

stored on the computer hard drive and the data is used to prepare the clients’ taxes. The need for a file storage room has been eliminated (Torgerson, 2007).

Cloud Computing

To go a step further, cloud computing is becoming popular today. It is called cloud computing because the name represents the cloud symbol used in flow charts, representing the Internet. It is a service that is being provided over the internet to permanently store data and use business applications over a remote server. Software-as-a-service (SaaS) is a web based service. The data is permanently stored in huge data centers shared by many other users. The accountant would not have to purchase anything. He/she would pay a monthly subscription so he/she would only pay for what is needed (“What is Cloud,” n.d.). It would free up space on the accounting firm’s hard drive while the firm rents space from giant computer centers (Laudon, et al, 2006, p.180). However, the accountant should be aware of the security issues involved when making a decision to use this technology. Cloud service providers are obliged to provide a safe environment to store the organizations sensitive information as accountants are obliged to understand the risks.

Advancements of Information Technology

Accountants were pushed towards acquiring new skills due to the advancements that information technology has made on the accounting industry. Accountants now have to have a high level of computer and technical skills. These skills have become part of the knowledge, and abilities of the accounting professionals. In its report the American Institute of Certified Public Accounts (AICPA) cities that, “The knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for the entry-level accountant now include the application and integration of information technology into the accounting process, as well as financial and managerial accounting principles” (Dillon, Kruck, 2004). From this research, not only does an accountant need to have a broad range of accounting knowledge and a strong ability to apply accounting principles, government regulations and interpret tax laws; they must also have strong skills in information technology, to be able to merge accounting with information systems. These accountants will be in greater demand by the profession (Dillon, et al, 2004).

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems

The twenty first century accountants have strategic software applications in place to prepare for the future; such as Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. This is a software program that integrates different departments in the organization onto the same system. This makes data available diversely and supports activities between the different departments. The information is made available through a common central database and shared through functional areas such as; finance and accounting, sales and marketing, human resources, and manufacturing and production (Laudon, et al, 2006, p.339-340). According to Thomas Wailgum, CIOs have told him that, “Their core ERP modules were used chiefly for accounting and financial applications (96%).” And when asked which

areas of their business ERP worked best, respondents overwhelmingly cited, “The financial side of the house (70%)” (2008). ERP improves the business performance because management can get a full picture of how the business is performing at any given moment which can help with major business decision making (Laudon, et al, 2006, p.339).

Supply Chain Management (SCM) Systems

Another strategic software application is the Supply chain management (SCM) system. This helps businesses manage relationships with their suppliers. According to the authors of the textbook, Management Information Systems, Kenneth and Jane Laudon the definition of Supply chain management is, “Information systems that automate the flow of information between a firm and its suppliers in order to optimize the planning, sourcing, manufacturing and delivery of products and services” (2006, p.G 12.) This is an interorganization system because the flow of information crosses over organizational boundaries (Laudon, et al, 2006, p.56-57). Dr. Roger D. Blackwell, professor of marketing at Ohio State University and author of the best-selling book, “From Mind to Market,” says it very briefly, “Supply chain management is all about having the right product in the right place, at the right price, at the right time and in the right condition” (PC Magazine, n.d.). Supply chain management has become an important area in many organizations.

There are quite a few demands of a SCM such as; planning and managing procurement, sourcing, and product logistics. These systems require financial expertise to run them. The financial and control aspects of the SCM organization needs to be monitored and supported by a staff. The CPA needs to monitor the entire supple chain, beyond the corporation itself (Kruglinski, 2009). John A. Kruglinski wrote in the Pennsylvania CPA Journal, “Supply chain finance positions typically require a strong background in inventory management and cost accounting, along with other skills, such as contract and capital expenditure evaluation” (2009). In order to meet the demands of the Supply chain management system a CPA, with a standard of excellence in financial knowledge and competencies; superior managerial abilities, is needed to oversee the operations and facilitate the processes.

IT Governance

Many doors have opened for a professional CPA who is proficient in these systems. Because information technology takes on a major part of running a successful organization the IT department needs to be managed. This manager needs to oversee that the information technologies support the organizations’ strategies and objectives. The organizations’ IT systems must be ahead of the competition, they must be financially responsible to the organization, they must be secure with a backup plan for failure and they must be in compliance with effective controls.

Not only must the IT systems support the organizational objectives but the organization must be in compliance with government regulations within the IT Infrastructure. The IT Governance concept is promoted by professional organizations such as, the IT Governance Institute (ITGI) which was established in 1998 and first published the IT Governance framework in that year. In 2004, the ITGI published IT Control Objectives for Sarbanes-Oxley which helped to mainstream awareness of IT Governance and establish controls. This guidance was obtained from Control Objectives for Information and Related Technology (CoBIT). This was also published by the ITGI. Other IT Governance frameworks are the IT Infrastructure Library and ISO 17799 (Information Technology -Security Techniques-Code of Practice for Information Security Management) (Schroeder, 2006).

IT managers must be in direct alliance with executive managers from all departments of the organization. Together they must orchestrate successful business planning, and compliance-related management decisions in reference to IT and the business model. He/she must be a successful, influential professional with strong IT leadership skills and superior managerial abilities (Schroeder, 2006). A CPA who is a member of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) can become a Certified Information Technology Professional (CITP). The credential takes into account his/her combined expertise and makes him/her an IT professional, the most trusted business advisor (CPA CITP, 2009).

Forensic Accounting

A run in of corporate fraud in the early 2000’s with such companies as Enron, World Com and Tyco deeply influenced public awareness. New regulations were developed. Corporate fraud was being seriously investigated. These scandals actually opened new opportunities for accountants in such areas as forensic accounting. A CPA’s expert knowledge of accounting and finance; combined with investigational techniques and law made it a perfect union for examining criminal financial transactions. Forensic accountants help with interpreting whether activities are illegal in such areas as; financial statement fraud, money laundering, embezzlement, bankruptcies, contract disputes, insurance claims, and securities fraud. They work with lawyers, law enforcement personnel and can also be an expert witness during a trial (Accountants and Auditors, n.d; Kruglinski, 2009).

The added use of information technology has increased the existence of computer crimes such as; identity theft, e-mail phishing, computer hacking, software piracy, purposefully spreading computer viruses, stealing computer files and data, e-commerce sales scams and the list goes on and on. The job market is open to CPA’s who meet the AICPA’s qualifications to become Certified in Financial Forensics (CFF) for a career in fraud prevention. Also the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners offers Certified Fraud

Examiner (CFE) credentials. Forensic accounting services are very much needed and in high demand (Kruglinski, 2009).

The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002: Internal Controls, Internal and External Auditors Since the Stock Market Crash of 1929 there has not been a piece of legislation written that changed the culture and the operations of publicly held companies until October of 2002 when Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act also known as “SOX.” The law was passed in an effort to stop corporate accounting fraud and consider the shareholders best interest first (McNamara, 2006).

Since the enactment, publicly held companies were required to uphold strict internal controls. The CEO and the CFO were now personally responsible for reporting financial information. Instantly there was a demand to ensure accuracy in business systems. They were required to have internal controls for operating practices, policies and procedures written and communicated. In order to accomplish this task, management accountants and internal auditors would be needed. This created new challenges for CPAs (McNamara, 2006; Accountant and Auditors, n.d.).

An importance was placed on audits of financial controls. CPA’s began assisting the executive officers to ensure the financial reports where ready to be audited. The Act prohibits accountants from managing and consulting clients whose books they were auditing. As a result, the company had to hire two separate accounting firms. The internal auditor was hired to make certain the company was in compliance with corporate policies and government regulations. These internal auditors could actually design internal controls and evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the company’s computer systems. By documenting and testing internal controls on real-time data they could ensure the company’s reliability of financial reporting (Accountant and Auditors, n.d.; Kruglinski, 2009).

The external auditor was hired to conduct an audit which is an examination of the company’s accounting information and financial statements. The auditor is to compile a report which is a formal statement of the auditor’s opinion as to whether or not the financial statements present fairly in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). This report is something that shareholders and the board of directors, investors, authorities and institutions rely on to be certain that the statements are prepared and reported properly. Under Sarbanes-Oxley a report on the company’s internal controls is also required or combined with the audit report (Accountant and Auditors, n.d; Gibson, 2007, p.52-53).

According to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, “It emphasizes the importance of internal control and makes management responsible for internal controls” (Gibson, 2007, p.52). The external auditor refers to, The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the

Treadway Commission (COSO) as the, “Standard for evaluating the effectiveness of the internal control systems” (Gibson, 2007, p.51). This piece of legislation was passed as a result of the accounting sandals to try and restore ethical business practices and public confidence in large corporations (McNamara, 2006).

Conclusion

The accounting industry is now speaking a brand new language of business. It is the language of future generations of accounting professionals. The evolution of accounting technology has been tremendous with strong growth potential for the future. The advancements have taken the industry to many new levels of opportunities that I have discussed throughout this article. In comparing and contrasting the changes that have occurred with the use of technology in accounting throughout the ages, enterprise productivity has created career stability and many diverse opportunities in this successful industry of professional accountants.

Writer: Agnes Ann Pepe is a Graduate Student of the Graduate Management Program at St. Joseph’s College in Patchogue, NY.

Works Cited:

Periodicals

Dillon, T. W., & Kruck, S. E. (2004, Spring). Management accounting quarterly Business services industry. The emergence of accounting information systems programs. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m000L/is_3_5/ai_n6272118/

Kruglinski, J. A. (2009, Winter). CPAs: many doors to opportunity. Pennsylvania CPA journal, 79(4), 38, 4. Retrieved from http://access.sjcny.edu:2090/pqdweb? index=0&sid=2&srchmode=2

McNamara, W., CPA. (2006, September). The importance of corporate governance for the private company. Builder/architect magazine. Retrieved from http://www.cowangunteski.com/documents/ImportanceofCorporateGovernanceforPrivateC ompanies.pdf

Torgerson, S. (2007, May). Partnering with customers for success. Accounting technology, 8,1. Retrieved from http://access.sjcny.edu:2090/pqdweb? index=29&sid=2&srchmode= 2009 Product & service guide searching for technology for your firm or your client. (2009, August). CPA & NSA technology advisor industry newsletter. Retrieved from http://www.cpata.com/PSG/2009/2009Guide.pdf

Non Periodicals

Gibson, C. H. (2007). In R. Dewey (Ed.), Financial reporting & analysis (pp. 51-53). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Laudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (2006). In B. Horan (Ed.), Management information systems (pp. 16, 56-57, 59, 62, 180, 276-277, 339-340, G12). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Websites, e-sources

Accountants and auditors. (n.d.). United States department of labor (bureau of labor statistics) [Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition]. Retrieved September 30, 2009, from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos001.htm

Definition of: supply chain management. (2009). PC Magazine.com [Encyclopedia]. Retrieved November 22, 2009, from http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/ 0,2542,t=supply+chain+management&i=52261,00.asp

How technology has impacted accounting. (n.d.). Retrieved September 27, 2009, from http://www.topaccountingdegrees.com/how-technology-has-changed-accounting Overview of the certified information technology professional credential. (2009). AICPA information technology center. Retrieved September 29, 2009, from http://infotech.aicpa.org/ Memberships/Overview+of+The+Certified+Information+Technology+Professional+Credent ial.htm

Schroeder, D., CPA, CITP, CISA. (2006). IT Governance. In AICPA information technology center. Retrieved November 22, 2009, from http://infotech.aicpa.org/ Resources/IT+Governance/IT+Governance.htm

Self-Assessment Questions

1 How technology is helpful in auditing and accounting system in schools?

2 Link the literature with present use of technology in institutions and prepare a report on it.DISCLAIMER

The materials for the content development of this course were initially collected and prepared from several sources. A substantial amount of effort has been made to review and edit the materials and convert them into this courseware. References and acknowledgements are given as required. Care has been taken to avoid errors, but errors are possible. Please let us know of errors or failed links you discover.

Edition…………………………………… First Printing………………………………….. 2017

Quantity: …………………………………

Price……………………………………… Rs.

Typesetter………………………………. M. Hameed Zahid

Printing Coordinator:……………….. Printing Press Operations Committee

Publisher:……………………………….. Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

FACULTY OF EDUCATION ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

PREFACE

Newly appointed school administrators are often confused when faced with the prospect of having to assume a leadership role in a complex organization like a school or school system. Where does one start? An effective method would be to systematically examine the vital components that make up an organization. A system of organizational diagnosis and prescription will lead to a comprehensive and integrated analysis of the organization’s strengths and weaknesses and point the way toward possible improvement. This course “School Administration and Supervision” suggests such a sequential and systematic approach. Utilizing it effectively can produce dramatic results in school management and administration.

This is a book about school administration and supervision. School administration is primarily about leadership. The conventional wisdom is that leaders are born, not made but more importantly, scholarly research indicates that skills can be learned. Granted, some leaders will be superior to others because of genetics, but the basic leadership skills are learned and can be cultivated and enhanced. In nine units of this book, first four units speak about administration, while unit number five, six, seven and eight deal with supervision. Unit number nine deals with the use of technology in administration and supervision.

The effective building blocks of quality school administration/leadership are the concepts of educational administration, administrative structure, functions and tasks of school administrator and the concept of supervision. Mastering the theory and practice in these areas of study will produce high-quality leadership ability and, in turn, produce successful school administrators; application of this knowledge will result in highly successful school administration and supervision.

There is an assumption that many educational practitioners make regarding effective administration is that “nice guys (and gals) finish last.” To be a successful administrator, the belief goes, one needs to be firm, direct, even autocratic. Once again, scholarly research, as well as my own experience, indicates that no one singular leadership style is consistently effective in all situations and at all times. Empirical and experiential studies indicate that effective leaders vary their styles depending on the situation.

It has been experience that graduate students in educational administration often complain that they are taught only theory and are left to their own devices to apply it. This approach is not the worst instructional method in that educators should be trained to be reflective practitioners who constantly strive to connect theory to practice. However, a truly effective instructional technique is to help students along in making those connections. Thus, at the end of each unit, there are activities that are specifically aimed at placing theory into practice.

Another assumption that is generally held by administrators is that if dramatic changes are not made during the first year of one’s tenure, the so-called honeymoon period, changes may never be made. Once again, I challenge this assumption. I believe that change is far more effective when it is made in a culture of trust and participation.

We can say that there are some principles of effective leadership/ administration. Effective leaders/administrators:

must be keenly aware of the organizational structure and culture of the school
must be able to engender a sense of trust in the faculty and staff
need to continuously improve the school program and, therefore, must be able to be agents for change
need to be able to adapt their leadership style to the situation
need to be well organized and creative and have a clearly articulated educational vision

In my view, which is supported by a prodigious amount of empirical research, if an administrator can master the knowledge and skills encompassed in these principles, and do it with heart, he or she will be highly successful.

Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Dean Faculty of Education

COURSE TEAM

Chairman: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Course Writers: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Dr. Syeda Samina Tahira Mr. Hamid Ali Nadeem

Course Reviewers: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Dr. Nasrullah

Mr. Hamid Ali Nadeem

Editor: Mr. Fazal Karim

Typesetter: Mr. Muhammad Hameed

CONTENTS

Page No.

Preface ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii

Introduction of the Course ……………………………………………………………………………… xi

Objectives of the Course……………………………………………………………………………. xii

Course Outline ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ix

Unit–1: Introduction to Educational Administration ……………………………………….. 1

Unit–2:.. Educational Administrative Structures…………………………………………….. 13

Unit–3:.. School Administration and its functions………………………………………….. 29

Unit–4:.. Evaluative Role of Administration………………………………………………….. 39

Unit–5:.. Approaches of Supervision…………………………………………………………… 55

Unit–6:.. Functions of Supervision………………………………………………………………. 69

Unit–7:.. Synergic Supervision……………………………………………………………………. 97

Unit–8:.. Supervising School Improvement…………………………………………………. 107

Unit–9:.. Use of Technology in Administration and Supervision…………………….. 123

INTRODUCTION OF THE COURSE

School personnel remain one of the most significant resources in the school. Supervision of the school personnel is central to the attainment of the goals and objectives of the school.

Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Course Coordinator

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

As graduate student enrolled in this program one will be expected to:

Extend his/her knowledge of pedagogy and leadership.
Enlarge his/her understanding of schooling and develop an appreciation of the political, economic and social forces that influence the decisions of educational
Share in-depth analyses and discussions of theory for application to real-world
Manage a school successfully as a trained administrator through solving different problems and issues in the
Complete a comprehensive exam during his/her final semester demonstrating his/her competencies in educational leadership.

COURSE OUTLINES

FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

(B.Ed 1.5 Year Programme)

Course Code: 8616 Credit Hours 03

Course Developer/Coordinator: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

Course Description:

Learning Outcomes:

After completing this course the learners will be able to:

Work through the administrative structures effectively
Perform well in collaborating with various administrative heads
Design administrative and supervisory plans of action
Supervise the academic as well as administrative functions of educational

Course Outline:

Unit–1: Introduction to Educational Administration

Concept and Definitions of Administration
Levels of Administration
Educational Administration and its Scope
Administrative Roles and Responsibilities

Unit–2: Educational Administrative Structures

Central Bodies of Educational Administration
Provincial and Regional Structures of Educational Administration
Administrative Structures of Government /Public Schools
Administrative Structures of Private Schools

Unit–3: School Administration and its Functions

School Heads’ Responsibilities
Academic Heads’ Responsibilities
Administration Office and Its functions
Administrative Personal

Unit–4: Evaluative Role of Administration

Performance Appraisal
Financial Audits
Academic Audit
Administrative Evaluation

Unit–5: Approaches of Supervision

Authoritarian
Laissez Faire
Synergistic
Developmental approach

Unit–6: Functions of Supervision

Articulating and Achieving the Missions and Needs
Monitoring and Evaluation
Support and Advise
Liaison

Unit–7: Synergic Supervision

Dual Focus
Joint Effort
Two Way Communication
Focus on Competence
Growth Orientation

Unit–8: Supervising School Improvement

Supervising Physical Infrastructure
Supervising Administrative Practices
Supervising Resource Management
Supervising Teaching and Learning
Supervising School Environment

Unit–9: Use of Technology in Administration and Supervision

Developing Accounting and Auditing Systems
Ubiquitous Supervision
Creating Web Tools for Monitoring and Evaluation
Online Reporting and Dissemination of Information

Recommended Books:

Wiles, J. (Bondi, J. (2000). Supervision: A guide to Practice. NJ: Prentice Hall.

Oliva, Pl f. & Pawlas, G. E. (1997). Supervision for Today’s Schools. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Daresh, J. C. (2007). Leading and Supervising Instruction. California: Crown Press.

Creemers, B. P. M. and Kyriakides (2014). Improving Quality in Education. New York: Routledge.

Web Resources:

http://www.iiep.unesco.org/capacity-development/training/training-materials/school- supervision.html.

http://www.ascd.org/ascd/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198011_glickman.pdf http://www.staffingpractices.soe-vt.edu/supervision.htm http://www.nuepa.org/libdoc/e-library/articles/2002rstyagi.pdf

Unit–1

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Compiled by: Dr. Syeda Samia Tahira Revised by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3

1.1 Concept and Definitions of Administration ……………………………………………… 4

1.2 Levels of Administration……………………………………………………………………….. 5

1.3 Educational Administration and its Scope ……………………………………………….. 7

Administrative Roles and Responsibilities…………………………………………….. 10
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 11
Recommended Readings……………………………………………………………………. 11

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the successful student will be able to:

To differentiate between administration and educational

To identify the key objectives, functions and role of Educational

To understand the level and task area of educational

To make precise decision using the knowledge of administration and

To evaluate the usefulness and soundness of educational administration for the study of a specific problem by selecting one of the options and justifying your

Concept and Definitions of Administration.

Educational administration illustrates the administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and educators in particular activities.

Levels of Administration

Here, it is important to identify the task areas and levels of the educational administrator. There are five main levels:

The Curriculum/Instructional Functions: Since the ultimate goal of educational administration has been teaching and learning, curriculum development and program management constitute an important area. The educational administrator ensures that instruction is directed to the requirement of examination bodies such as different examination boards. He is the academic change facilitator. He is the academic change He should, therefore, change the curriculum as and when

The Staff Personnel Functions: The education administrator is the first among He is the leader of the organization as he has staff under him to manage as his subordinates. He cannot make or manage the organization alone. He has to harness the potentials of his staff to his great advantage. He should place the necessary structures and allow his colleagues to participate in the organizational governance, especially as it affects them in their expertise and welfare. Under a good organizational climate, discipline and harmony naturally emerges.

Student Personnel Functions: The educational administrator also has the responsibility to manage the students put under his care The students are in their formative years. The administrator should have the grasp, full knowledge and understanding of the various stages of students’ developments and their relevant needs. This is done by providing relevant structures and programs capable of directing and shaping their academic and moral values. Students have advanced from passive on-lookers to active participants on issues and programs that affect them, especially with the formation of student-union governments and other such bodies existing in educational institutions today. Students should participate in decision-making and governance, especially in decisions that affect their well-being. Extra-curricular activities as well as adequate health services, moral and civic orientations, discipline and adequate inter-personal relations should be maintained.

Financial and Physical Resources Functions: The administrator has to be quite knowledgeable in finance management as this is one of his most crucial functions. He has to start with budgeting by properly articulating the cash inflow and outflow in the system. The prudent education administrator creates alternative strategies for cash inflow. The education administrator distributes the available resources among the competing needs in his organization preferentially. His financial management has to be apt and his accounting and financial reports straight. The educational administrator is responsible for the procurement and maintenance of educational plants and facilities. His procurement and maintenance of these infrastructures have to be properly planned and programmed. He determines the level of their usage or

The School Community Relations Functions: The community is the next-of-kin of school organization, and requires a joint responsibility of the administrator and the community. Although the school serves the community, it is the function or duty of this administrator to make the first move of positive relationship with the The educational enterprise is an open system. A social organization thrives on effective interrelationships within it and with its relevant publics.

Educational Administration and its Scope

Education is one of the hugest enterprises undertaken for the purpose of the development and growth of the individual and to meet the needs of society.

The scope of general administration under five areas more precisely, viz,

Production
Assuring public use
Finance and Accounting
Personnel, and

Applying these five areas to the fields of education we can try down the scope of educational administration:

educational workers so that they may shape the final product of education (the achievement of the pupils) in the desired form and shape.

Further, Sears has pointed out the scope of administration more specifically in relation to education as follows:

Establishing educational purpose, by expressing them in the form of aims and the

program of work in order to accomplish them, i.e., laying at the work of the organization.

Provision and development of the personnel and necessary finances, housing;

materials and facilities for carrying out the work of the organization, i.e., mobilizing resources of men and materials for the realization of the aims of education.

Laying down procedures and techniques for the performance of the work and the

policies and plans to guide the work, i.e., the curriculum and methods of teaching and supervision.

Defining the nature and procedure of use of authority (legal, official and personal) and control (scientific and democratic) by which the administrative process will
Deciding the nature of aims and procedures by which the administrative process

will operate.

Deciding the mechanism (structure and relationships) by which authority and power are applied in the administrative process. From the above discussion we find that the scope of educational administration is very wide and extends over many When the process starts working numerous problems arise and have to be solved on the basis of a broad social perspective and the 18 nation’s way of life.

In view of the innumerable activities that have to be performed by educational administration its scope may be broadly classified and delineated under the following areas:

Physical Facilities: These comprise the area dealing with the problem of provision and maintenance of the school plant equipment and supplies, their production, purchase, upkeep and accounting.

Administrative Roles and Responsibilities

To delegate authority and responsibility.
To strengthen local initiative and local control.
To secure the greatest return from the money
To secure the goodwill of personnel, public education department and other social agencies and
To implement a democratically determined
To determine policies and to implement them.
To utilize maximally the special capacities of the personnel and the material
To integrate the units concede with the same problems or areas.

Further, the administrative process can be described as one having seven functions or components, according to Russell T. Gregg. These components are as follows

Decision making
Planning
Organizing
Communicating
Influencing
Coordinating; and

Self-Assessment Questions

1 What is the difference between administration, educational administration and management? Precisely describe the concept of educational administration with examples?

2 We came away with the belief that the administrative functions are the scope of educational administration. It is important to identify the task areas of the educational administrator. What are the main task areas of educational administration, we need to identify. Keeping in mind the curriculum/Instructional Functions, The Staff Personnel Functions, Student Personnel Functions and The School Community Relations Functions.

3 Keeping in view the different definitions of educational administration and development in the ways to define it, write your own definition of educational administration.

Suggested Readings

Adesina, S. (1981). Introduction to Educational Planning. Ile-Ife. University of Ife Press Ltd. Aina, S. (1992). Personnel Management in Nigeria. Ikeja: F. Communication.

Adesina, S. (1990). Education Management. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. Griffiths, D. E. (1964). The Nature and Meaning of Theory. Chicago: University Press.

Hoy, W. & Miskel, C. (1987). Educational Administration: Theory, Research and Practice, 3^rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Koko, M. N. (2005). Human Management (A Practical Approach). Port Harcourt: Harey Publication Coy.

Lagos: YPPS. Amadi – Eric, C. (2005). Planning an English

Manila, B. B. (2003). Fundamental of Educational Planning and Administration (Concepts, Issues and Practices. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.

Nte, A. R. (2003). Foundation of Educational Management. Port Harcourt: Planning, Administration and Supervision.

Unit–2

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES

Compiled by: Dr. Syeda Samina Tahira Revised by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi

CONTENTS

Page No.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

Central Bodies of Educational Administration……………………………………….. 16
Provincial and Regional Structures of Educational Administration……………. 20
Administrative Structures of Government /Public Schools……………………….. 23
Administrative Structures of Private Schools…………………………………………. 26
Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………………………………. 28

2.6 Recommended Readings…………………………………………………………………… 28

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the successful student is expected to:

Understand the difference between the structure of public and private educational administration in Pakistan.
Analyze the current distribution of education percentage in different sectors of
Evaluate the structure of provincial and regional educational
Understand the central bodies of educational administration and

Central Bodies of Educational Administration

There are basically seven central bodies of educational administration.

Educational Planning,
Educational Organization,
Educational Direction,
Educational Co-ordination,
Educational Supervision,
Educational Controlling, and
Educational Evaluation.

Educational Planning: Being the first aspect in the scope of educational administration planning implies a basic function that is how the aims and objectives are to be Before launching upon a particular educational program and implementing it the person or authority in-charge or at the helm of affairs is required to take decisions about the methods and strategies the objectives for effectively and efficiently. This means planning has to be carried out for administrating the total educational program and for this, the basic facts and figures, background, date and profile are necessary.

Team Work: Modern educational planning doesn’t put stress on the fact that only the top administrator of the government should be involved in Rather

Decision-Making: Educational planning is the preparation of pre-courses in the decision making process. It has to help for determining the optional to be taken. While educational administration is mostly decision making, planning in education is only the other side of it.
Forecasting: Educational planning describes or defines determining events, needs and conditions of future time. It implies forecasting or projection of important factors in education such as number and types of pupils and expansion of facilities needed for them.
Social and Economic Goals: Modem educational planning emphasizes that the goals of a democratic society should be social and economic in nature concerning with the welfare and progress of all citizens rather than the self-centered or selfish goals of some special interest groups. The expected goals of the society and needs of children and young pupils in the schools and colleges should be the broad frame of reference.
Anticipation: Modern educational planning anticipates probable developments and needed change in future, much ahead of time so that proper facilities, supporting media and required resources for implementing the planned change may be Hence, relevant changes and efforts are avoided and the changes are effectively implemented.
Remedial Measures: This nature or characteristic of modern educational planning indicates that it is remedial and guidance oriented in nature and approach. With appropriate planning procedure it is possible to identify maladjustments or deficiencies in the system that causes educational problems. Identifying causes or the educational problems and suggesting relevant solution is the main objective of educational
Choice of Best Alternative: Modern educational planning is a logical, systematic and scientific process different from the elementary kinds of procedure utilized in the part of bringing about changes in the system of education.
Principles of Educational Planning: Educational planning or modem educational planning has the following principles:
1. Educational planning must be one aspect of general national planning.
2. Research is planning based on system
3. Planning must be a continuous
4. Planning should find a definite place in educational
5. Planning should take into consideration resources and establish conditions of
6. Planning must be realistic and
7. Planning must ensure active and continuing participation of all interested individuals and groups.
8. The content and scope of planning should be determined by the needs of the individuals and groups to be served.

Planning should utilize the services of specialists without allowing them to
Planning should provide opportunity for all persons and groups to understand and appreciate the
Planning should provide for continuous
Planning should have opportunity for modification for further

Educational Organization: An organization be defined as stable pattern of interaction, among conditions or groups having a collective identity (a name and a location) pursuing interest and achieving given tasks and coordinated through a system of Organizations are social units deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals.

But as our concern is to know the features of school organization, let us know its different features.

All teachers without any discrimination should get the same
Teachers should get equal pay for equal work and similar qualifications.
Provisions for retirement and the corresponding benefits should be the same for all
Rules for the appointment of teachers should be the
Conditions of service should be the same despite differences in

Educational Direction: It is essential that there must be an authority or an order or a policy for providing direction to the management of every educational program and for taking decisions in solving the For this direction is necessary for giving leadership in order to implement the programs and carrying out the entire management. Democratization of management seeks to encourage the pride, enjoyment and growth among the individuals working in the organization. Each individual must work according to his needs, interests and capabilities.

Educational Co-Ordination: For making smooth management of every educational program for resulting in adequate realization of its goals or objectives, there is need of ensuring co-ordination and co-operation among the multifarious resources. Through this coordination all facilities will be unified and all services are harmonized. So through this aspect of educational management different kinds of resources especially human resources have to be interrelated or coordinated for utilizing the resources properly in an effective manner.

Educational Supervision: Educational administration and supervision are now regarded as the total process of making any educational program a grand For this, there is the need of ensuring and maintaining good inter-personal relationships between the administrator and supervisor, the supervisor and teachers, teachers and pupils, school and community etc.

Characteristics of Educational Supervision:

The following are the characteristics of educational supervision in relation to the management of an educational program:

It is a creative and dynamic expert technical
It provides leadership with extra-knowledge and superior
It promotes co-operative educational efforts in a friendly
It stimulates the continuous growth of teachers and development of
It gives co-ordination, direction and guidance to teacher’s
It helps in achievement of appropriate educational aims and
It improves instruction and the teaching-learning

Educational Control: Controlling is exercised through proper technique that is the

Educational Evaluation: Being the last but not the least aspect of educational management, educational evaluation is an integral part of it as it determines the degree of realization of educational objectives or goals as well as the effectiveness of it; for this there must be evaluation short-term or long-term, periodic or continuous and formal or

Provincial and Regional Structures of Educational Administration

The provincial institute for education administration can be represented with the help of flow diagram as shown below:

Evaluation Criteria for the administrative of educational institutes as well as trainees

Regularity and Punctuality 100% attendance in all the sessions)
Pre / Post Test Achievement
Observance of Conduct & Discipline
Attitude & Behavior (with Peer, Class in- charges, RPs and others)
Self & Peer Evaluation
Performance in Syndicate
Friendship & support
Assignments
Professionalism
Final grades obtained in the training are recorded on the certificates of each participant

Then comes in service e.g.

HRM Manual for Principal/Headmaster of GHSS/GHS (M & F)
Financial Management for Principal/Headmaster of GHSS/GHS (M &F))
Manual on School Management for Middle School Head Teachers
Manual on School Management for Primary School Head Teachers
Microsoft Office User Specialist (MOUS)
Personnel Management (HRD & HRM)
Financial Management
Academic Management
Research Methods, Techniques & Study conduction
Civil Service Act 1973 & Rules made there under
Manual on Disaster preparedness and Risk Management
Manual on psycho social Training for Teachers
Manual on Mine Risk Education for Teachers
Manual on Peace Education for Teachers
Community Participation & Parent Teacher Council (PTC)
Manual on School Sanitation & Hygiene Education
Manual for Teachers on Child Friendly Schools Concept
Manual for Teachers of Rehabilitation Centers
Manual for Middle School Head Teachers on Supervision

The target population for teachers are:

Primary School Teachers
Middle School Teachers
Secondary School Teacher
Subject Specialists
Community School Teachers
Feeder Schools Teachers
Accelerated Learning Program Teachers

Target Population for administrators are:

Head of Primary Schools
Head Teachers of Middle Schools
Headmasters/Headmistress of High Schools
Principals of Higher Secondary School
Education Managers (DEOs, DEOs, ASDEOs, ADOs heads/Principals of RITEs)

Training Methodologies:

Classroom lectures / Presentations
Group Work / Activities
Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Individual and Group Presentations
Study Tours
Cultural Evenings
Syndicate Work / Book reviews

Report Writing
- Administrative Structures of Government /Public Schools

There are many issues which are confronted by the students studying in government schools. Let’s have a look on the issues faced by public school students.

Issues regarding ethics
Discrimination in Education
Unavailability of books
Security Issues
Teachers Are not as much cooperative
Campus Less Schools
Not Reasonable
Limited Syllabus
Favoritism in Paper Checking
Invigilators Are Not Fair while checking papers
Improper uniform
Lack of technological tools
Not Decently Prepared
Higher Enlistment In Classes
There is no system of conducting IQ tests in public academic system
A large number of students face Pick and Drop Issues
Conservative/restricted Environment
Lack of association between students and teachers as well as no teamwork
Favoritism issue
There Are Lesser Libraries In the public academic system
Teachers focus is more on bookish knowledge that is not a good sign for student
Hygienic problems
Improper Usage Of Possibilities
Mismanagement is a common problem