AIOU COURSE CODE 8603-1 ASSIGNMENT AUTUMN 2022

AIOU COURSE CODE 8603-1 ASSIGNMENT AUTUMN 2022

Course: Curriculum Development (8603) Semester: Autumn, 2022

1. 1 Define various concepts of curriculum. Write a comprehensive note on scope and need of curriculum.

Curriculum

Curriculum is a standards-based sequence of planned experiences where students practice and achieve proficiency in content and applied learning skills. Curriculum is the central guide for all educators as to what is essential for teaching and learning, so that every student has access to rigorous academic experiences. The structure, organization, and considerations in a curriculum are created in order to enhance student learning and facilitate instruction. Curriculum must include the necessary goals, methods, materials and assessments to effectively support instruction and learning.

Goals

Goals within a curriculum are the standards-based benchmarks or expectations for teaching and learning. Most often, goals are made explicit in the form of a scope and sequence of skills to be addressed. Goals must include the breadth and depth to which a student is expected to learn.

Methods

Methods are the instructional decisions, approaches, procedures, and routines that teachers use to engage all students in meaningful learning. These choices support the facilitation of learning experiences in order to promote a student’s ability to understand and apply content and skills. Methods are differentiated to meet student needs and interests, task demands, and learning environment. Methods are adjusted based on ongoing review of student progress towards meeting the goals.

Materials

Materials are the tools selected to implement methods and achieve the goals of the curriculum. Materials are intentionally chosen to support a student’s learning. Material choices reflect student interest, cultural diversity, world perspectives, and address all types of diverse learners.

Assessment

Assessment in a curriculum is the ongoing process of gathering information about a student’s learning. This includes a variety of ways to document what the student knows, understands, and can do with their knowledge and skills. Information from assessment is used to make decisions about instructional approaches, teaching materials, and academic supports needed to enhance opportunities for the student and to guide future instruction

Scope and sequence:-

Q.2 Define curriculum foundation. What is the role of economic foundation in curriculum development? Justify your answer with specific arguments.

Economical Foundations

It focuses on:

• Job or market oriented curriculum
• Skill learning

The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the vocational aspect of the curriculum. The economic  condition of a nation or a society guide the curriculum of the country, because the stakeholder of the education wants to employ such a curriculum which help them to build their economy and the people have better jobs when they finish their schooling. In this kind of situations the curriculum become job or market oriented. In this curriculum the curriculum developer gives importance to skills acquisition which is the demands of the time. Undeveloped nations try to prepare skill work force and send it to other countries for jobs

Here are some economical factor which influence the curriculum development process

Economic Factors

Allocation of funds

The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because without proper funding one can’t achieve the outcome of a good curriculum. It is the financial aspect of a country which guide them to adopt which type of curriculum, for example activity base or learner center curriculum need more money in the process of the implementation of the curriculum then subject matter curriculum

 

Because activity base and learner center curriculum need more space and money then subject matter, for that reason in Pakistan we adopted subject base curriculum because we have shortage of schools, classrooms in schools, trained teachers. In economical sound countries they have implemented all kind of curriculums in their schools according to the need of the school and that society. Without proper funding once can’t implement a good curriculum in the country and achieve the benefits of that curriculum.

Lack of resources due to finical constrains effect the developing and planning of the curriculum. What type of a curriculum should have to support it through proper funding? There are different factor in curriculum development, planning and implementation process which need financial support e.g.

Schools lack physical facilities including buildings, classrooms, furniture, Hostel, Play grounds, mats and even very basic necessities like blackboard, chalk, and charts.

Lack of other resources water, Fan, Electricity

Lack of skilled manpower

The lack of skilled manpower due to financial restrains, without proper financial support it is hard to train the people to support the teaching learning process. Only through proper funding and the establishment of training institutions for teachers and support staff. Teachers are the core of education system and without proper training one can’t implement a curriculum and to support the curriculum one need to train the entire teacher on that style of curriculum. So the skills of the teachers also guide the direction of the curriculum, and to develop these skills in the teachers need funds.

Q.2 Define curriculum foundation. What is the role of economic foundation in curriculum development? Justify your answer with specific arguments.

Economical Foundations
It focuses on:
• Job or market oriented curriculum
• Skill learning
The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the vocational aspect of the curriculum. The economic condition of a nation or a society guide the curriculum of the country, because the stakeholder of the education wants to employ such a curriculum which help them to build their economy and the people have better jobs when they finish their schooling. In this kind of situations the curriculum become job or market oriented. In this curriculum the curriculum developer gives importance to skills acquisition which is the demands of the time. Undeveloped nations try to prepare skill work force and send it to other countries for jobs
Here are some economical factor which influence the curriculum development process

Economic Factors
Allocation of funds
The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because without proper funding one can’t achieve the outcome of a good curriculum. It is the financial aspect of a country which guide them to adopt which type of curriculum, for example activity base or learner center curriculum need more money in the process of the implementation of the curriculum then subject matter curriculum

Because activity base and learner center curriculum need more space and money then subject matter, for that reason in Pakistan we adopted subject base curriculum because we have shortage of schools, classrooms in schools, trained teachers. In economical sound countries they have implemented all kind of curriculums in their schools according to the need of the school and that society. Without proper funding once can’t implement a good curriculum in the country and achieve the benefits of that curriculum.
Lack of resources due to finical constrains effect the developing and planning of the curriculum. What type of a curriculum should have to support it through proper funding? There are different factor in curriculum development, planning and implementation process which need financial support e.g.
Schools lack physical facilities including buildings, classrooms, furniture, Hostel, Play grounds, mats and even very basic necessities like blackboard, chalk, and charts.
Lack of other resources water, Fan, Electricity

Lack of skilled manpower
The lack of skilled manpower due to financial restrains, without proper financial support it is hard to train the people to support the teaching learning process. Only through proper funding and the establishment of training institutions for teachers and support staff. Teachers are the core of education system and without proper training one can’t implement a curriculum and to support the curriculum one need to train the entire teacher on that style of curriculum. So the skills of the teachers also guide the direction of the curriculum, and to develop these skills in the teachers need funds.

Lack of labs due to financial problems
The lack of labs and libraries also affect the curriculum development process because without proper computer labs in cities and villages one can’t implement computer education curriculum all over the country. In the same way without proper libraries in all school one can’t implement a curriculum which needs supporting or reference books.
Also without proper health care system in the schools lot of activities can’t part of the curriculum due to the risk factor to the health of the students and teachers.
The overburden of the population is also one of the factors that affect the financial support of the curriculum development, lack of facilities and implementation of the curriculum in the country.
In short we can say that economic play a vital role in the curriculum development and implementation process in the country and it is the foundation of the successful curriculum, without a good economic background a country can’t afford a curriculum which needs huge financial support.
Q.3 Evaluate the various factors which usually affect the selection and organization of curriculuar contents
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM EVALUATION
“The public believes, incorrectly, that classroom instruction is as natural as showing your child how to fish or helping a nephew play Ms. Pac-Man. But those comparisons don’t take into account the profoundly specialized discourse of K–12 instruction.”
Introduction
After a curriculum is developed, the curriculum committee can breathe a sigh of relief, but their work is not done. Only when the curriculum is implemented and then evaluated will the committee know to what extent their efforts were successful. It is fair to say that no curriculum is perfect because there are almost always factors that may influence the curriculum that were unknown during the development process. As a former curriculum coordinator, I know that every curriculum, if it is to be most effective, is revised based on the results of an evaluation.
Essential Questions
Why is curriculum evaluation an essential part of the curriculum development process?
How is monitoring different than evaluation?
What are the types of curriculum evaluation?
What are the key elements in writing good curriculum?
How does a well-written curriculum affect teaching and learning?
How can the Aligned Curriculum concept help to organize the curriculum development process?
Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum evaluation is the assessment of programs, processes, and curricular products that are resources, not people (Oliva, 2009). There are two parts to the evaluation of the curriculum instruction process. The first is the evaluation of students (most often in meeting the standards) which takes place before, during, and after instruction. The question is, have the objectives been met? Teachers analyze student assessment data to see how many students have met or not met the objectives, and at what level of performance. The second is the evaluation of the effectiveness of the guides and resources, and the instructor or teacher. This is often done in groups, and over a period of time.
Evaluation helps to establish the worth of a program and make decisions on whether to continue, stop, or modify the project. The various tools for collecting data and the sources of the data is also discussed.
As with most terms in the curriculum, there are a variety of definitions given to evaluation. Simply described, it is a process of establishing the extent to which the objectives of a program have been achieved by analyzing performance in given areas. Thus, evaluation is a judgmental process aimed at decision-making. Doll (1992) also defines evaluation as a broad and continuous effort to inquire into the effects of utilizing educational content and process to meet clearly defined goals.
Yet another definition states that “evaluation is a process of collection and provision of data for the sake of facilitating decision making at various stages of curriculum development.” (Shiundu&Omulando, 1992)
Thus, curriculum evaluation refers to the process of collecting data systematically to assess the quality, effectiveness, and worthiness of a program. The process of curriculum development and implementation raises issues like:
What are the objectives of the program?
Are these objectives relevant to the needs of the individual and society?
Can these objectives be achieved?
What are the methods being used to achieve these objectives?
Are the methods the best alternatives for achieving these objectives?
Are there adequate resources for implementing a curriculum?
Certain terms are closely related to evaluation. These include assessment, measurement, and testing.
Assessment, Measurement, and Testing Relating to Evaluation
There is often confusion between the terms: assessment, measurement, and evaluation. The following descriptions help define the differences.
Assessment
Assessment is the process that shows whether there has been a change in student’s performance in a certain academic area. The change revealed through assessment can be given a value by quantifying procedures referred to as educational measurement. Assessments include the full range of procedures used to gain information about student learning and the formation of value judgments concerning learning progress.
Measurement
Measurement is the means of determining the degree of achievement of a particular objective or competency. For example, the outcomes for individual students are measured (using assessments) to see if the student has met the outcomes. Measurement refers to the determination of the actual educational outcomes and comparing these with intended outcomes as expressed in the objectives of the program. Measurement describes something numerically. There is currently a focus on the measurement of 21st century skills for students.
Evaluation
In the above context, evaluation is the process of making a value judgment based on the information gathered through measurement and testing. Evaluation of a curriculum occurs so that the developers can accept, change, or eliminate various parts of a curriculum. The goal of evaluation is to understand whether or not the curriculum is producing the desired results for students and teachers. Evaluation is a qualitative judgement.
Monitoring versus Evaluation

Q.3 Evaluate the various factors which usually affect the selection and organization of curriculuar contents

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM EVALUATION

“The public believes, incorrectly, that classroom instruction is as natural as showing your child how to fish or helping a nephew play Ms. Pac-Man. But those comparisons don’t take into account the profoundly specialized discourse of K–12 instruction.”

Introduction

After a curriculum is developed, the curriculum committee can breathe a sigh of relief, but their work is not done. Only when the curriculum is implemented and then evaluated will the committee know to what extent their efforts were successful. It is fair to say that no curriculum is perfect because there are almost always factors that may influence the curriculum that were unknown during the development process. As a former curriculum coordinator, I know that every curriculum, if it is to be most effective, is revised based on the results of an evaluation.

Essential Questions

Why is curriculum evaluation an essential part of the curriculum development process?

How is monitoring different than evaluation?

What are the types of curriculum evaluation?

What are the key elements in writing good curriculum?

How does a well-written curriculum affect teaching and learning?

How can the Aligned Curriculum concept help to organize the curriculum development process?

Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation is the assessment of programs, processes, and curricular products that are resources, not people (Oliva, 2009). There are two parts to the evaluation of the curriculum instruction process. The first is the evaluation of students (most often in meeting the standards) which takes place before, during, and after instruction. The question is, have the objectives been met?  Teachers analyze student assessment data to see how many students have met or not met the objectives, and at what level of performance. The second is the evaluation of the effectiveness of the guides and resources, and the instructor or teacher. This is often done in groups, and over a period of time.

Evaluation helps to establish the worth of a program and make decisions on whether to continue, stop, or modify the project. The various tools for collecting data and the sources of the data is also discussed.

As with most terms in the curriculum, there are a variety of definitions given to evaluation. Simply described, it is a process of establishing the extent to which the objectives of a program have been achieved by analyzing performance in given areas.  Thus, evaluation is a judgmental process aimed at decision-making. Doll (1992) also defines evaluation as a broad and continuous effort to inquire into the effects of utilizing educational content and process to meet clearly defined goals.

Yet another definition states that “evaluation is a process of collection and provision of data for the sake of facilitating decision making at various stages of curriculum development.” (Shiundu&Omulando, 1992)

Thus, curriculum evaluation refers to the process of collecting data systematically to assess the quality, effectiveness, and worthiness of a program. The process of curriculum development and implementation raises issues like:

What are the objectives of the program?

Are these objectives relevant to the needs of the individual and society?

Can these objectives be achieved?

What are the methods being used to achieve these objectives?

Are the methods the best alternatives for achieving these objectives?

Are there adequate resources for implementing a curriculum?

Certain terms are closely related to evaluation. These include assessment, measurement, and testing.

Assessment, Measurement, and Testing Relating to Evaluation

There is often confusion between the terms: assessment, measurement, and evaluation. The following descriptions help define the differences.

Assessment

Assessment is the process that shows whether there has been a change in student’s performance in a certain academic area. The change revealed through assessment can be given a value by quantifying procedures referred to as educational measurement. Assessments include the full range of procedures used to gain information about student learning and the formation of value judgments concerning learning progress.

Measurement

Measurement is the means of determining the degree of achievement of a particular objective or competency.  For example, the outcomes for individual students are measured (using assessments) to see if the student has met the outcomes.   Measurement refers to the determination of the actual educational outcomes and comparing these with intended outcomes as expressed in the objectives of the program.  Measurement describes something numerically. There is currently a focus on the measurement of 21st century skills for students.

Evaluation

In the above context, evaluation is the process of making a value judgment based on the information gathered through measurement and testing. Evaluation of a curriculum occurs so that the developers can accept, change, or eliminate various parts of a curriculum. The goal of evaluation is to understand whether or not the curriculum is producing the desired results for students and teachers. Evaluation is a qualitative judgement.

Monitoring versus Evaluation

Monitoring

What is monitoring? It is a continuous review of the progress of planned activities. Put differently, it is the routine daily, weekly, or monthly assessment of ongoing activities and progress. Monitoring focuses on what is being done. It is centered on two questions:

Is the curriculum project reaching the specified target population?

Are the various practices and intervention efforts undertaken as specified in the curriculum project design?

Monitoring is important in examining the inputs and outputs. Indeed, it can be considered as a “process evaluation.” Monitoring thus helps to ensure that the implementation is on course.

Evaluation

Evaluation in relation to monitoring is the episodic assessment of the overall achievement. It examines what has been achieved, or what impact has been made. Evaluation also examines the gaps in the curriculum in addition to what may have been achieved by the students but wasn’t.

Purposes of the Evaluation

Evaluation can serve as a diagnostic tool for remedial teaching to improve pupils’ learning, but it also serves different aspects and participants in the education process. These include feedback to students themselves, classroom purpose including appropriateness of methods, curricular materials, and even the community itself.

It is also the process of determining whether or not the objectives have been attained; often at the end of the program (summative) but sometimes periodically, during implementation (formative). Monitoring focuses on whether the targeted population is being reached, assessment of the flow of inputs and outputs, plus their adequacy and relevance. Evaluation checks on the attainment of objectives and provides objective data on various aspects of the curriculum and its effect on targeted beneficiaries. Continuous information from monitoring helps to identify weaknesses and strengths in the process (e.g. inadequate resources). This could help in modifying objectives, among other changes.

Evaluation data can improve curriculum development through decision-making, whether to modify curriculum content, methods, proposed teaching, and learning materials, and even evaluation approaches recommended. Timely decisions ensure the right direction is taken promptly in the development process.

Evaluation serves the following purposes:

Individual student progress purposes:

Discover what the students have learned (knowledge, skills, attitudes, and adjustment, etc.).

Ascertain the student’s status in class.

Discover where the child needs help, and the nature of the help needed.

Analyze data to determine what is needed to guide each student’s overall growth and development.

Classroom purposes – Evaluation provides data that enables the teacher to determine the effectiveness of teaching. It helps in answering questions such as:

Which of the objectives has been achieved?

Are the methods and activities relevant and practicable?

Is re-teaching necessary?

Curriculum materials purposes – Are they relevant, usable, appropriate, and affordable?

School-wide purposes:

Assess the overall effectiveness of the institution.

Reveal over or under-emphasis in individual classrooms.

Reveal learning areas needing more attention throughout the school.

Assist the school administration and staff in planning for institutional improvement.

Provide data useful for school-wide instruction and interventions.

Community – What are the attitudes and inputs of the community to the curriculum and the curriculum development process?

Essentially, evaluation ensures that strengths and weaknesses are detected at an early stage, thus saving time, resources, and frustration to increase the chances of success of a program.

Tyler proposes evaluation at the end of the program to provide data for making decisions about the curriculum, such as reviewing and modifying, etc. John Goodland, on the other hand, proposes continuous evaluation throughout the entire process of curriculum making. This information provides feedback as the process continues and revisions are expected to be made accordingly and promptly.

Types of Evaluation

There are various types of evaluation including pre-assessment, formative assessment, summative evaluation, and impact evaluation.

 

Pre-assessment

This process helps to determine whether the students possess the prerequisite knowledge and skills to enable them to proceed with new material. It is useful to have this information at the beginning of a new course, or the beginning of a new year in school. It is also useful for teachers new to a class who have not taught before.

Formative Assessment

Formative assessment is that which takes place during the implementation of a curriculum project or program. It guides and promotes the development of the program by providing data for its improvement.

Note: Formative evaluation needs to take place at all stages of curriculum development and implementation.

Summative Evaluation

This is an evaluation carried out at the end of a program. It facilitates major decisions about whether to continue with the program as it is; expand it, modify it, or stop it all together depending on the extent of success or failure of the program.

Impact Evaluation

Impact evaluation is an assessment of how the intervention being evaluated affects outcomes. The effects can be intended or unintended. The analysis of the impact requires an examination of what the outcomes would have been without the interventions. These evaluations are an aspect of summative evaluation and are usually conducted at the state level because it requires rigorous statistical analysis. They establish the impact of the program on the beneficiaries or recipients of the program, and the community, and are generally reported at the state and/or national level.

Q.4 Explain the main approaches and various format in writing behavioural objectives. Also develop five statments of behavioral objectives.

“Instruction is effective to the degree that it succeeds in changing students in desired directions and not in undesired directions.”

According to Guilbert (1984) in article entitled “How to Devise Educational Objectives” the qualities of specific learning objectives are:

• Relevant
• Unequivocal
• Feasible
• Logical
• Observable

Measurable

Alternative Names for Behavioral Objectives

Special note: In educational psychology we define learning as a “change in behavior.” This is a little confusing but if a student could not answer a particular question on a pretest, then received instruction, and then answered the question correctly on a posttest, a change in behavior is illustrated and learning is considered to have occurred. Objectives specify the learning or expected behavior so hence the term behavioral objective. Other names used for behavioral objectives include:

• Learning Objectives
• Outcomes
• Enabling Objectives
• Terminal Objectives
• Educational Objectives

History & Controversy Around Behavioral Objectives

Behavioral objectives became known to many educators through a book entitled Preparing Instructional Objectives, written by Robert F. Mager, that was published in 1962. It was during the 60’s and early 70’s that many public school teachers were required to write behavioral objectives as a critical component of their daily lesson plans. Many workshops for teachers were conducted and the Mager model for writing behavioral objectives was taught.

The Mager model recommended that objectives be specific and measurable, and specified three parts to an objective as follows:

It should have a measurable verb (an action verb)

It should include a specification of what is given the learner

It should contain a specification of criteria for success or competency

The debate about the value of objectives relative to the planning and delivery of instruction has gone on for many years. Two articles that exemplified this debate were “Behavioral Objectives Yes” and “Behavioral Objectives No.” There is research to support the effectiveness of objectives relative to increased learning and retention. Admittedly, there are also studies that show no significant differences. However, behavioral objectives are widely accepted as a necessary component of the instructional design process.

3 Domains for Behavioral Objectives

Cognitive Domain

Refers to intellectual learning and problem solving

Cognitive levels of learning include: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation

Example objective: The student will construct a treatment plan for a teenager newly diagnosed with IDDM. The treatment plan must contain the following: …………..

Affective Domain

Refers to the emotions and value system of a person

Affective levels of learning include: receiving, responding, valuing, organizing, and characterizing by a value

Example objective: The student will demonstrate a commitment to improving case presentation skills by regularly seeking feedback on presentations.

Psychomotor Domain

Refers to physical movement characteristics and motor skill capabilities that involve behaviors requiring certain levels of physical dexterity and coordination

These skills are developed through repetitive practice and measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or execution techniques. Psychomotor levels include: perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.

Example objective: The student will calibrate instrument X before performing procedure Y.

The Six Step Approach

Step 1: Problem Identification and General Needs Assessment
Step 2: Needs Assessment of Targeted Learners
Step 3: Goals and Objectives
Step 4: Educational Strategies
Step 5: Implementation
Step 6: Evaluation and Feedback

Q.5 Evaluate the principles and criteria for selecting the curriculum contents for early childhood education

 

Birth through preschool (0–5 years) is the first optimal period for human development.

As humans, we are predisposed to learn from other members of our group, particularly at first from those who are older or of higher social status. Like our ape ancestors, we start life by imitating those with whom we have the closest bonds: our mothers and caregivers. Unlike apes, we want to know what others are thinking, to know what they know, and how they know it. That’s how we learn and thrive. In their book Social: Why Our Brains Are Wired to Connect, Matthew Lieberman and colleagues point out that we are all neurobiologically wired for social connection. Attachment to others is key to healthy development.

Education starts from the moment we are born, and it is a lifelong endeavor – we are always learning. But 90% of our brain growth takes place outside the womb, in the first three years of life. Unsurprisingly then, birth through preschool (0–5 years) is the first optimal period for human development. During this period, we are capable of learning and developing rapidly; we develop our senses, our motor skills, identify our group, develop our language and social behaviors. By age six, the brain is already 95% of its adult size. But the gray matter, or thinking part of the brain, continues to thicken throughout childhood as the synapses make extra connections in response to input from the world outside.

What’s Needed to Help All Children Reach Their Potential

It stands to reason, then, that quality child care and preschool experiences during these formative years would have a significant life-long effect for children, and benefit society as a whole. Research bears this out. A longitudinal study over 40 years found that the children enrolled in a quality preschool program experienced fewer teen pregnancies and were more likely to graduate from high school, have a high-paying job, and own their own home and car. A more recent long-term study of children at Chicago’s Child-Parent Centers revealed a 29% higher high school graduation rate and a 42% lower arrest rate for a violent offense than their peers. They reached a higher level of education by age 35 and were more likely to earn a post-secondary degree.

 

Where We Stand

“At the nation’s current rate of growth, it would take 150 years to reach 75% enrollment, and much of that would not meet the quality benchmarks necessary to produce long-term benefits.”

Almost two decades after the NRC study, in spite of widespread bipartisan public support, we are still far short of providing quality preschool for all U.S. children. Programs are fragmented, operating under a variety of names and auspices including the federal Early Learning and Head Start programs, and private and public funded child-care. Both the number of children enrolled and the quality of teaching varies widely.

Measuring the Impact

Unfortunately, much of the current research and discussion about benefits of preschool focus on a relatively short term impact, specifically on children’s subsequent academic performance in elementary school. That performance, in turn, is defined by student scores on standardized tests. On that basis, some researchers point to a “fade out” effect: by third grade, students who went to preschool are doing no better than those who did not.

There are many issues with evaluating the value of preschool based on a few standardized test scores—and it is especially troubling if the practice of “teaching to the test” starts as early as age 3 or 4. In her book The Most Important Year: Pre-Kindergarten and the Future of Our Children, Suzanne Bouffard writes about the misguided practice of pressing pre-school children to rack up a certain number of “sight words” by the time they start kindergarten—instead of focusing on more foundational skills for learning to read such as context and comprehension

Quality is Key

As the Pre-K in American Cities report says, “This chain of benefits from cradle to career and beyond generates economic benefits far exceeding cost, making Pre-K programs a strong public investment. However, programs that do not meet high quality standards don’t produce the same benefits.”

“The most crucial role teachers play is in the questions they ask and the dialogue they facilitate with children about what they are learning, how, and why.”

In its assessments, NIEER has defined benchmarks for ten features of effective programs, benchmarks covering development standards, curriculum supports, class size, and ongoing improvement. Notably, no fewer than four of the ten benchmarks have to do with the training and qualifications of teachers. Bouffard brings these features to life with many inspiring stories of innovative, effective preschools. About the renowned early childhood program of Reggio Emilia, a small city in northern Italy, she writes:

“The most crucial role teachers play is in the questions they ask and the dialogue they facilitate with children about what they are learning, how, and why. They are constantly challenging children to look at things from new angles, try original ways of doing things, and reflect on why, with questions like…‘How do you know?’ In those conversations, they use rich vocabulary and complex concepts about geometry, physics, art, and other topics. Children are never drilled on the alphabet or numbers; instead, they explore those concepts as they come up through rich, meaningful explorations.”